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JAMILA BRIJBHUSHAN

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Indian Embroidery

Jamila Brijbhushan

PUBLICATIONS DIVISION

MINISTRY OF INFORMATION AND BROADCASTING

GOVERNMENT OF INDIA

First Edition : 1990 (Asadha 1912)
Reprint Edition : 2006 (Saka 1928)

ISBN : 81-230-1369-8
A&C-ENG-REP-040-2006-07

Price : Rs. 75.00

Published by :

Director, Publications Division,

Ministry of Information and Broadcasting,

Government of India

Soochna Bhawan, CGO Complex, Lodhi Road, New Delhi- 110 003

Website : http://www.publicationsdivision.nic.in

Editing : Nitima Shiv Charan
Cover Design : Alka Nayyar

Typeset at : Bright Computer Academy

Printed at : Aravali Printers & Publishers (P) Ltd. New Delhi-20

Sales Centres : • Delhi • Soochna Bhawan, CGO Complex, Lodhi Road, New
Delhi-110003. • Hall No. 196, Old Secretariat, Delhi-110054. Mumbai • 701, B-
Wing, 7th Floor, Kendriya Sadan, Belapur, Navi Mumbai-400614 • Kolkata • 8,
Esplanade East, Kolkata-700069 • Chennai • ‘A’ Wing, Rajaji Bhavan, Besant
Nagar, Chennai-600090 • Thiruvananthapuram • Press Road, Near Govt. Press,
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No. 1, 2nd floor, Kendriya Bhawan, Sector 8, Aliganj, Lucknow-226024
• Ahmedabad • Ambica Complex, 1st floor, Paldi, Ahmedabad-380007 • Guwahati
- House No. 07, New Colony, Cheni Kuthi, K.K.B, Road, Guwahati 780003

CONTENTS

Pages

I The Art of Embroidery 1

II Regional styles

1 Sind and Gujarat 19

2 Kashmir 28

3 Punjab and Haryana 3 1

4 Himachal Pradesh 36

5 Bengal 40

6 Bihar 43

7 Uttar Pradesh 45

8 Karnataka 47

9 Tribal Areas 49

1 0 Rajasthan 5 1

1 1 Orissa and Tamil Nadu 54

III Gold and Silver Embroidery 56

Bibliography

■

THE ART OF EMBROIDERY

Embroidery, that is the embellishment of cloth with design
made by needle and thread, is an art that stretches back to
hoary antiquity. The word ‘embroidery’ is a Middle English word
derived from the old French ‘broder’ meaning edge or border.
Egyptian mummies were wrapped in garments embroidered in
gold and robes of kings and noblemen were embellished with
embroidered designs as were the trappings of their chariots.
The design was made with threads of linen and wool, the hair
of goats and camel and exceedingly fine strips of gold and silver.

According to the Bible, Moses covered the Holy of Holies
with a veil of fine linen embroidered with cherubim of blue,
purple and scarlet. The temple built by Solomon in Jerusalem
was adorned with an embroidered curtain. Long before the
advent of the Christian era Babylon, Persia and Sidon had
achieved great perfection in the art of embroidery. Alexander
was dazzled by the specimens of Persian embroidery brought
to his notice. China and India also had developed the art from
early times.

Over the centuries, embroidery has been used to adorn
everything from the smallest personal possession like
handkerchiefs and underwear to the most sumptuous state
regalia. Curtains, cushions, wall hangings, state robes, throne
canopies and seats, ordinary everyday clothes, bed and table
linen have all provided gist to the embroiderer’s mill. The
adornment is done on all kinds of pliable material which can
be pierced with a needle — linen, cotton, wool, silk and leather.

INDIAN EMBROIDERY

Gold, silver, silk, cotton and wool threads, animal hair, precious
stones, pearls, shells, insects' wings, seeds and enamel are all
used to produce effects of ravishing simplicity or awesome
grandeur. The precious material was never lost for whenever
the base fabric was worn out and the garment or decorative
piece could no longer be used for its original purpose, the gold
and silver threads and precious stones were extracted and sold.
This has always been a common practice in India which also
existed in Europe until the last century. In the aftermath of the
Napoleonic wars English ladies melted down the metal in the
gold embroidery of uniforms, to raise money to meet necessary
expenses.

Fragments of embroidered cloth dating from early times
have been found in Europe and Asia. Pieces of tapestry of
leather and felt excavated from burial mounds in the Altai
Mountains dating from the 4th century B. C. show amazing
dexterity in the art of applique. Seven different kinds of cloth
are used to depict a horse, rider and a griffin. The work done
with horsehair using very fine needles has a strong folk element
and is startlingly alive. A fragment of embroidery from the
Sassanian dynasty of Persia in the 6th century shows men with
details of jewellery and clothes along with trees. Another
obviously of a garden, dating from the 4th or 5th century A.D.
originating probably from some Eastern Mediterranean country,
is decorated with rows of amazingly natural looking trees.

The European climate called for wall hangings and curtains
to warm interiors and keep out draughts. High born ladies spent
all their leisure hours embroidering massive tapestries with
scenes of religious and historical happenings. The Battle of
Hastings which brought the Normans to England and is the
start of the historical period of English history is depicted in the
huge Bayeux tapestry. Bed hangings and table covers were other
items on which the ladies exercised their skill as were items
such as chalice veils and altar clothes used in churches.

Ecclesiastical robes, celebrating the pomp and grandeur

INDIAN EMBROIDERY

of the church, vied with royal robes in splendour. They were
embroidered with silk and gold and silver threads showing
various incidents from the Bible or recounting the history of a
particular saint. The cloak said to have been worn by the
Emperor Charlemagne at his coronation, dates from 1200 A.D.
and carries a stylised representation of the Imperial eagle. The
insignia of the Holy Roman Empire consisting of items worn
by the Emperor was embroidered with gold and silver thread
and pearls.

Gloves, dresses, cushions, curtains, vests, gentlemen's suits,
fire screens, christening dresses and shawls, chairs, handbags,
hunting pouches, shoes, sashes, pillow covers were all
embroidered. The Victorian lady prided herself on the number
of embroidered antimacassars, table covers, etc., that filled her
house as had her counterpart four or five centuries earlier on
the minute and elaborate work of her tapestries which teemed
with horses, dogs, men, trees, flowers and legendary birds and
animals.

A group of pictures from 14th century China done with
infinitely fine stitches could easily be mistaken for paintings, so
life like are the expression, so natural the stance and background
and so smooth the surface. How old the tradition of embroidery
is in China no one can say — some authorities assert that the
art originated there — but the Chinese also embellished articles
of everyday use as well as ceremonial regalia with the needle.
Their skill with the needle has few parallels anywhere in the
world. No girl was considered accomplished until she achieved
proficiency in the art.

Needles have been found at all excavation sites in India
dating from the third millenium B. C. Figurines found at both
Harappa and Mohenjodaro are clad in embroidered garments.
The sculptures of Bharhut and Sanchi, dating from the 2nd
and 1st centuries B.C., show figures wearing embroidered veils
and headbands. In Ajanta, figures are also shown wearing
garments embellished with designs. While it is not possible to

INDIAN EMBROIDERY

say with certainty whether these were obtained by embroidery
or printing it can be presumed that, in view of the widespread
knowledge of the art of plying the needle, some of them must
have been produced through that medium. In the 13th century
Marco Polo, the Venetian traveller who visited India on his way
back from China wrote of the leather mats of Gujarat as being
'of red leather depicting birds and beasts in gold and silver thread
sewn very subtly.' He saw couches and cushions made in the
same way and considered them more skilfully embroidered than
anywhere in the world.

Literature also confirms the use of needles. An invocation
in the Taithriya Samhita runs “I invoke with a fine eulogy Raka
(full moon) who can be easily called. May she, who is auspicious
(or good looking) hear (our invocation) and understand in her
heart (its meaning): "May she sew her work with a needle that
is unbreakable; may she bestow on us a son that is worthy and
would possess immense wealth.” A Rigveda hymn says, “With
never breaking needle may she sew her work and give her a
son most wealthy.” Strabo, the Greek geographer, who based
his account of India on the diaries of Megasthenes, ambassador
to the court of Chandragupta Maurya in the 4th century B. C.,
describes Indians as dressed in robes worked in gold and richly
flowered muslin.

Unfortunately, no specimens of this early embroidery
exists. After the 16th century, however, we find a profusion of
embroidery of various kinds. A great many of these are preserved
in the Calico Mills Museum at Ahmedabad and are found in
other parts of the world.

Gujarat was renowned for its silk embroidery on cotton.
This was done in very fine chain stitch and, according to
Barbosa, who wrote in 1518 about the products of Cambay,
the most important port of Gujarat, the art seems to have been
used to produce very beautiful quilts and testers of bed finely
worked.’ These quilts were carried to Europe by the Portuguese
and enjoyed great popularity. Merchants of the East India

INDIAN EMBROIDERY

Company were anxious to export these items to England where
they fetched high prices. Patan, the historical capital of Northern
Gujarat was an important source for such goods and in 1631
King Charles I, by a royal proclamation permitted quilts of
Pitania embroidered with silk to be brought to England by
servants of the Company as articles of private trade. A large
embroidered bedspread in Hardwick Hall in Derbyshire,
England, would seem to be one of the earliest specimens of this
trade which was described by a writer as being worked in many
coloured silks on a cotton ground.

During his visit to the African country, Melinde, in 1502
Vasco da Gama was given a white embroidered bed canopy
said to have been made in Bengal. He regarded it as the finest
bed canopy he had ever seen. This was high praise indeed for
all beds of the rich and reasonably rich in Europe which were
decorated with such canopies to protect the sleeper from the
cold and all were embroidered to a greater or lesser extent.
Apparently the white silk embroidery of Bengal, done
presumably with twisted thread, was highly valued. When the
Portuguese King, Sebastian, was killed in a battle in Morocco
in 1578, the enemy was rewarded with rich gifts for handing
over his body. These included a white Indian bedspread of
Bengal quilted all over and worked with very fine white silk
thread, fringed with yellow silk thread and with tassels.

Embroidery was, obviously, given as much importance by
the Mughals as other arts. The Mughal emperors, being great
aesthetes naturally took pride in their appearance and paid
attention to their clothes. The Ain-i-Akbari describes Akbar’s
wardrobe and states, “His Majesty pays much attention to
various stuffs; hence Iranian (Persian) and European and
Mongolian articles of wear are in abundance. Skilful masters
and workmen have settled in this country to teach the people
an improved system of manufacture. The imperial workshops
in the towns of Lahore, Agra, Fatehpur, Ahmedabad, Gujarat
turn out many masterpieces of workmanship and the figures
and patterns, knots and variety of fashions which now prevail,

INDIAN EMBROIDERY

astonish experienced travellers. His Majesty has himself
acquired in a short time a theoretical and practical knowledge
of the whole trade; and on account of the care bestowed upon
them, the intelligent workmen of this country soon improved
.... and the imperial workshops furnish all those stuffs which
are made in other countries....” In 1663 Francois Bernier, the
French traveller, visited the court of Aurangzeb and described
the imperial workshops, “There are besides some large halls
which are the ‘kar-kanays’ (karkhanas), that is to say the places
where the craftsmen work. In one of these halls you see the
embroiderers occupied in their work with the master who
supervises them. In another you see the goldsmiths; in yet
another the painters” Although Aurangzeb had the makings of
an ascetic and lived simply and frugally, he realised the value
of pomp and pageantry on State occasions. However, his age
saw the beginning of the decline of the empire and the craftsmen
working for the imperial court, lacking patronage, soon
dispersed to other parts of the country to seek new patrons and
to blend their own skills with those existing locally.

During the 16th and 17th centuries, Gujarat was an
internationally famous centre for embroidery. It was the silk
chain stitch embroidery on cotton which won renown at this
time.

Embroidery, like other arts, reflects the cultural traditions
of the people. In India the peacock, lotus, the elephant and,
above all, the mango have provjded inspiration to artists for
centuries. The mango (kairi) is an overwhelming favourite and
variations of the design are found in different parts of the country
under names associated with more or less similar shapes e.g.
the windblown cypress in Kashmir and the cashewnut
(godambi) in the South Kashmiri embroidery shows the pastel
shades and shapes of its flora — the iris, the lily, the saffron flower
and the chinar leaf which appears repeatedly in all art forms
of the valley. Rajasthan and large parts of the South favour the
tulsi plant, gateways and arches of temples and shrines, the
lotus, peacock, figures of deities, horses, elephants, bullocks,

INDIAN EMBROIDERY

birds and mythological animals. North India shows motifs which
are Indo-Persian in origin.

The embroiderer plied his needle not only to adorn
garments of personal wear — usually of the finest cotton to keep
the heat at bay — but to shawls, carpets, wall hangings, roofs
of tents, trappings of horses and elephants and bullocks, tray
and book covers and a host of other items.

Commercial embroidery is a highly specialised art and is
based on division of labour. The design is stamped on the cloth
by the chapgar , the printer. This is done with wood blocks
having the design carved in relief on one side. The dye is made
from red earth mixed with gum mucilage. The embroiderer's
effort is to cover the design fully with stitches but if any part of
it shows after the completion of the work it can easily be removed
by washing. Sometimes the figures are drawn by painters in
pencil on muslin and in chalk on wool. The cloth is stretched
on a horizontal frame raised sufficiently from the ground to
make it possible for the embroiderer to work comfortably without
having to bend too far forward (needless to say, the embroiderer
always sits on the floor). The needle is always pushed away
from the person plying it and never towards him. Scissors are
used but most often a piece of glass or china is used to cut the
thread.

Like the weaver, the Indian embroiderer is an artist whose
sense of colour and design never flags. He avoids useless and
wasteful decoration, always keeping his product within realms
of good taste. The best Indian art has a universality whose
infallible harmony and grace never fails to please. It displays a
pure and refined taste which raises the product above the status
of being mere craft and lifts them to the pinnacle of creative art

Embroidery is done in all parts of India, the work produced
in each area having its own distinctive character. In many parts
of the country such as the Punjab, Gujarat, Kutch, Kathiawar,
Bengal and certain tribal areas, the art is folk in origin and
inspiration and still forms a vital part of the everyday life of the

INDIAN EMBROIDERY

people. In places like Delhi, Lucknow, Hyderabad and Kashmir
the rich gold, silver and silk embroidery and the delicate chikan
owe their origin to court patronage and still cater to an urban
clientele. It is noteworthy that whereas the folk craft is produced
almost entirely by women working at home, the sophisticated
work is a male prerogative except for chikan work which is
also done by women as a means of supplementing the family
income. All master craftsmen are men and the best work is
done by them.

MATERIALS AND TECHNIQUES

In the Art of Embroidery' the authors Marie Schuette and
Sigrid Muller-Christensen assert that in the development of
embroidery there are no changes of materials or techniques
which can be felt or interpreted as advances from a primitive
to a later, more refined stage. On the contrary, in early works
is found a technical accomplishment and high standard of
craftsmanship rarely attained in later times. They, of course,
were writing mostly about European and Middle Eastern work
which dates from about the 5th century B. C. In India this holds
true for the specimens available to us which, unfortunately, do
not pre-dates the 16th century A.D. From the frescoes and
statues we can be sure of the fineness of the work but cannot
categorically state whether the use of gold or silver thread and
embellishment with precious and semi-precious stones was
known. However, from the 16th century A.D. onwards we are
in total agreement with the authors for the Mughal craftsman
set such a high standard of workmanship that his successors
could never surpass him and could, at best, just barely match
his skill.

With exception of leather, embroidery in India has been
done on woven cloth of cotton, wool, silk. A great many
of the embroidered pieces that exist are severely damaged
because of the exigencies of the climate, ravages of white ants
and other insects, the natural wearing out of the material and

INDIAN EMBROIDERY

just plain neglect. As in the case of gold and silver jewellery,
which was melted down in times of financial stress or just to
procure metal to be fashioned in new ways, the precious metal
was extracted from embroidery and melted down. Thus there
are very few families where the sumptuously decorated garments
and articles of daily use that formed part of practically every
well-to-do girl’s trousseau have existed for even two generations.

In Europe embroidered woollen garments have been
preserved since the Bronze Age in Scandinavia. Greek
embroideries on the same material have been found dating from
the 4th century B. C. while Mongolia and Siberia had apparently
developed the art around the same period. Because of the cold
climate, wool was, naturally, much in demand and was used
for clothing, wall hangings, rugs and cushions. Woollen cloth
and felt were used for applied and patchwork. In India the famous
jamewar shawls were woven in Kashmir. Most of them had the
design woven into them but a great many were embroidered
with fine silk thread. The more expensive ones showed the
design equally on both sides and were called dorukha (double
sided). The sheen of silk enriched the flat colour of the woollen
material and produced a subdued look of sumptuousness that
was elegance personified. Wool has also been traditionally used
for embroidering both for garments and rugs and carpets. Such
work was done in Kashmir where craftsmen covered the whole
surface of the material with stitches to produce article of beauty.
The pastel coloured chain-stitches rugs and the more sturdy
gabbas and namdas have enjoyed world popularity and add a
touch of glamour to any decor.

Although woollen garments have been used in India quilted
ones have been more popular, perhaps, because of being
comparatively inexpensive. Quilting is done in many parts of
India either to hold together cotton wool between two layers of
material or to bind various layers of cotton cloth together. It is
used for various garments such as full, half sleeved or sleeveless
vests, coats and even pyjamas. Quilting has also been used among
others, for quilts, curtains, book covers, small rectangular pieces

INDIAN EMBROIDERY

for holding babies. Quilting is done with small running stitches
in thread of the same colour as the material, the design being
achieved by varying lines of stitching to produce geometrical or
floral designs or by using coloured threads and embroidering the
surface that will show when the article is in use.

Around the year 1,000 A.D. Europe had attained a high
degree of proficiency in the embroidery of silk fabrics with gold,
silk and silver threads. The base material was of sturdy twill
weave and sometimes an additional under layer of linen was
added to give the material strength to support the heavy
embroidery. Later, when velvet came to be used in the 13th
century, a thin, smooth cloth of silk or linen was laid over the
velvet pile to make the working easy. Any protruding edges would
be snipped off when the work was completed. In India the same
techniques were used except that in place of linen stiff cotton
was used.

Cotton and woollen threads have to be spun while for silk
spinning is unnecessary. Gold and silver threads are made by
wrapping an extremely fine strip of gold or silver spirally around
a silk thread. The threads achieved in this way were laid on the
material and stitched on with very fine stitches. For other work
the fine metal strips were threaded into the needle and used to
pierce the material like ordinary thread. Tiny metal spangles
with a hole through the centre are used to embellish the design.
In very expensive garments the gold used was genuine while in
less expensive ones silver-gilt was used. As in other countries,
so in India pearls, coloured beads, semi-precious stones, pieces
of mica and mirror, spangles of various shapes and sizes have
all been traditionally used to aid the embroiderer to achieve the
desired result.

Traditional Indian embroidery achieved its beauty and
luminosity as much from the embroiderer’s skill as from the
quality of the materials used. The natural colours used for dyeing
the thread distinguishes the work done in India from that done
anywhere else. Indigo, madder and kermes (tiny insects which

STITCHES

Running Stitch

Back Stitch

Stem Stitch

Satin Stitch

Long & Short Satin Stitch

Quilting Stitch

Kathiawad Stitch, Phulkari Stitch

Hetting-bone Stitch

Feather Stitch

£ /7 /7

Cross Stitch

Chain Stitch

Kasuli

Double Line and Zigzag Stitch

Couching or laid Stitch

Applique and button-hole Stitch

Blanket Stitch

Knotted Stitch

Interlaced Stitch

Button-hole Stitch

INDIAN EMBROIDERY

yield a crimson colorant) produced a range of blues, reds,
violets, pinks and blacks which by mixing with other colours
produced rich lasting hues that have retained their lustre through
the centuries. The Indian embroiderer never uses too many
colours in any one piece. Sometimes he uses a single colour,
producing an impression of several shades by skilfully using
vertical, diagonal and horizontal stitches. His work, thus, benefits
fully from the play of light on the surface of the silk to achieve
the maximum effect of richness through a minimum of
decoration.

Although most of Indian embroidery is done with the needle
some extremely fine chain stitch work is achieved with the ari,
a small hooked awl which is a smaller adaptation of the
cobbler’s awl. The small ari is pushed through the cloth, the
thread held below the cloth being formed into a loop around
the hooked tip of the awl and the loop is then pulled through
the surface of the cloth to form a stitch. The stitches can be
made in fine gold and silver or silk thread producing extremely
aesthetic results. Work done in this way was no less highly prized
than that done by the needle.

The art of the embroiderer lies in the choice of stitches
and the deftness with which they are employed. The stitches
are used to form the outline or to fill in the whole surface almost
like mosaic. In still other pieces they give an impression of being
used like brush work in painting. Over the centuries a number
of stitches have been evolved to enable the embroiderer to
achieve sophisticated results. Most of the stitches are common
to the work done in different parts of the world. However,
variations of the basic stitches allow distinctive regional
characteristics to develop. These depend on the type of ground
fabric used, the thickness, colour and quality of the embroidery
thread, the aesthetics of the embroiderer or his/her patron and
the design favoured, whether geometric or figurative motifs or
a combination of both.

The embroidery stitches used in India link the work done

INDIAN EMBROIDERY

here with that of other countries. The satin stitch used in Kashmir
is a variation of that done in China where it originated. The
darning stitch, which produces the sumptuous ‘bagh’ and
‘phulkari’ work of the Punjab, has affinities with the stitches
used in Baluchistan and the Middle East and parts of Europe.
The interlacing stitches of Kutch and Kathiawar have their
counterparts in Spain, while the ‘Kasuti’ of the Karnataka bears
a close resemblance to the embroidery of Austria, Hungary and
Spain. The white on white chikan work of Uttar Pradesh is
similar to the washable linen embroidery of Europe. The silk
embroidery done in Surat has a strong Chinese influence. There
is no doubt that navigators and traders, like the Arabs, have
been instrumental in disseminating culture and influencing crafts
by making available designs and materials of one region to
another.

Indian embroidery uses many different stitches as well as
variations of the basic stitches.

Running Stitch: This is the simplest of all stitches. The
needle runs for equal distances over and under the ground
material. This is the stitch used for quilting in India. A variation
is the double running stitch in which a preliminary row of
running stitch is worked and the needle runs again filling in the
spaces left empty the first time. The value of the double running
stitch is that it looks exactly alike on both sides of the cloth.
Worked in close rows to fill a surface it is known as double
darning. A variation is the zig-zag running stitch which is like
the double running stitch, only the stitches are slanting instead
of being straight

Back stitch is like double running stitch except that it shows
overlapping stitches at the back and so cannot be used for
double-sided embroidery. In this stitch the needle moves
backward the length of one stitch passes down through the cloth,
moves forward the length of two stitches and is brought up
through the cloth again.

Stem stitch is a fine outlining stitch which appears on the

INDIAN EMBROIDERY

front of the work as a row of oblique even-sized stitches. The
needle passes up through the cloth, moves forward the length
of one stitch and then, moving down through the cloth, moves
back for a shorter distance and passes up through the cloth
again beside the previous stitch.

Split-stitch resembles the stem stitch except that the needle
actually passes through the thread of the previous stitch splitting
it.

Chain stitch is a loop stitch in which the thread is passed
over the point of the needle as it emerges from the bottom of
the cloth, to form a loop which is secured by the following stitch.
This bears a strong resemblance to the split stitch and can, like
it and stem stitch, be used for outline or inner drawing or
arranged in parallel lines and spirals, can also be used for filling
a surface. Many variations of the stitch are possible. These are
open chain stitch, made by inserting the needle at a slant thus
forming broad open loops and the double chain stitch which
is made by inserting the needle alternately at the right and left
of the line of loops. The popularity of chain stitch seems to
have been universal. Archaeological finds in Turkestan and
Mongolia dating back from the beginning of the Christian era
show it to have been much used by Chinese embroiderers.
Fragments found at Kerch in the Black Sea area, dating back
from a few centuries before Christ are also worked in the same
stitch. That the stitch could be adopted to very fine work such
as characterisation of faces and natural landscape is
demonstrated in the European embroideries of the Middle ages.
The stitch is also extensively used in Coptic, Byzantian and
Greek work. In India the stitch was very popular and it was
Indian embroidery exported to Europe which revived interest
in the stitch in the 17th and 18th century.

Feather stitch is worked in a manner similar to the open
chain stitch but here the open loops of the chain are placed at
a slight angle to form a feather-like pattern at one side of the
row. In double feather stitch the loops are worked on each side

INDIAN EMBROIDERY

of the row. Other variations are achieved by adjusting the angle
of the loops, by placing the stitches diagonally or by leaving the
free end of the loop longer.

Buttonhole stitch is a right angled loop stitch which got its
name from being used in Europe to finish buttonholes.

Blanket stitch is similar to buttonhole stitch, being used to
finish the edges of blankets. This stitch can also be used as
fillers or for finishing scalloped or other fancy cut edges. It can
also be made to outline circles on the surface of the cloth.

Cross stitch also known as gros point, consists of an oblique
stitch crossed at the centre by another oblique stitch of equal
size. If the oblique stitch is not crossed by another it is known
as petit point. Cross stitch came into popularity in Europe only
in the 16th century but from then on it became the most popular
stitch for covers, wall-hangings and embroidered furniture. In
India it is much used for folk embroidery. It can be used singly
or in an infinite variety of patterns.

Herringbone stitch is a variation of the cross stitch, the
cross being made at the top and bottom of the row instead of
in the middle. This can be used as the basis of a wide variety
of interlaced stitches or may be decorated by couching the
crosses. Variations can be achieved by spacing the stitches
closely; by working two rows of the stitch over each other so
that they intersect in different ways to form a variety of patterns
of greater or lesser intricacy. On the back of the cloth the stitches
form parallel rows giving the appearance of back stitch. Close
herringbone stitch is sometimes worked on the back of the
material so that the parallel lines lie on the surface and the
crossed stitches lie underneath. This is known as crossed back
stitch.

Interlacing stitch This is done on the base of double
herringbone stitch in which two rows of herringbone stitch are
worked over each other so that they intersect. For better
interlacing, when the first row is being worked, after each step
taken at the top of the row the needle is slipped under the

INDIAN EMBROIDERY

previous stitch instead of over it, but after each stitch taken at
the bottom of the row, the thread passes over the previous stitch
in the normal way. When working the second row of
herringbone, after each stitch taken at the bottom of the row,
the needle is taken under the adjoining stitch of the first row,
but after each stitch taken at the top of the row, the thread
passes over the adjoining stitch in the usual way. The thread
for final interlacing is begun along the upper half of the
foundation row, threading the interlacing stitches through the
surface threads of the foundation row without penetrating into
the fabric. When the upper half of the pattern is completed, the
interlacing is done along the lower half of the foundation row
a perfect sequence of interlacing being maintained throughout.

Satin stitch consists of parallel or radiating stitches worked
closely together to completely cover the ground material both
at the front and the back. This stitch, used in various lengths
and colours, can produce subtle shading giving the work an
impression of depth. The effect achieved could be likened to
painting.

A variation of the satin stitch is what has been described
as ‘a filling stitch with ridged edge.’ In this the outer edges of
the stitch are finished with looped ridges worked in the same
way as the buttonhole stitch.

Brick stitch is a variation of satin stitch, being a closely
worked filling stitch named for the brick-like appearance it
creates.

F/y stitch is a looped stitched worked singly, each loop
being sewn down by a long fastening stitch. The stitch, named
for its resemblance to the wings of the fly, can be varied by
adjusting the lengths of the loops and the fastening stitch. It can
also be worked in rows to form different patterns.

Long and short stitch is a filling stitch in which long and
short stitches are worked alternately so that the longer stitches
fill the spaces left by the short ones.

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Knot stitch is achieved by winding of the thread around
the tip of the needle to form a decorative knot which is then
stitched down. It is used in European as well as Chinese and
Japanese embroidery and has been adopted in India from both
sources.

Couched and laid work: In this threads, cords or
decorative materials such as gold and silver wire are laid upon
the surface of the fabric and stitched down with sewing thread.
Usually this thread matches the colour of the threads laid down
so that it is almost invisible on the finished embroidery.
Sometimes, however, the couching is done with different colours
so that the stitches, themselves, are decorative in colour. Outlines
are made by laying single threads or groups of threads. Where
filling is required the threads are laid side by side covering the
whole area to be embroidered. The couching is done with plain
stitches or stitches arranged in a decorative pattern. For raised
work a foundation of soft thick cotton thread is worked. After
the foundation padding is stitched the threads of the final
embroidery are laid over it These are usually couched only at the
edges of the motifs but sometimes the couching stitches are used
within the motif also, passing both through the padding and the
material. The technique is particularly suitable for gold and silver
embroidery. A marvellous effect of light and shade was created
in European embroidery from 1400 A.D. onwards by using
couching stitches very close together to hide the gold thread and
then spacing them widely to allow the metal to shine through.

Darning stitch: It is used for mending torn fabric by rows
of stitchery which remake the woven texture of the fabric. For
embroidery the darning stitch is a type of running stitch which
is worked over the fabric in various ways to form a pattern.

Hem stitch: This is used to finish the hems of
handkerchiefs, table clothes, etc. The threads of the ground fabric
are drawn out parallel to the edge and the stitchery is pulled
tightly to form a lace-like pattern. It is also used to make open
work pattern on the ground fabric.

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Hemming: In plain sewing this stitch is used for fastening
a hem. In embroidery it is used for attaching various pieces to
the ground fabric in applique work.

Apart from these stitches which are used all over the world
there are certain variations used in Indian folk embroidery. For
instance, small mirrors used in western Indian embroidered are
attached with a central loop through which a ring of stitches
are interlaced. A variation of this is one used for making flowers
in which the central part of the stitch is worked into the cloth
instead of around a loop. This is sometimes described as a
‘radiating stitch.

Shadow work: This is achieved by doing the embroidery
on what will eventually be the wrong side of the work.
Transparent fabrics such as muslin and organdy are used for
this work. The design appears on the right side of the material
as an opaque shadow with very fine stitches showing around
the edges where the needle has been inserted. In another
variation, the motifs are embroidered in applique work applied
underneath the cloth appearing as a shadow on the surface. In
India such work is a feature of the chikan embroidery.

The Indian embroiderer belongs to no special caste,
community or sex. The art is hereditary like so many other skills
in India, it is passed down from father to son or from mother
to daughter. The people engaged in the craft may belong to
such different castes as ahirs (cowherds), Kunbis (cultivators),
mochis (cobblers). It is done by Hindus and Muslims, by men
and women, boys and girls. Tribals, like the Lamanis and
Banjaras, have also contributed work of a high order to the
general kaleidoscope of Indian embroidery. Like painting it is
not the special preserve of any one group of people, but is open
to anyone with enough skill and imagination to gain expertise
in it. Really good embroidery is like painting which, though
demanding a certain framework of discipline, allows the artist
an enormous degree of freedom for the expression of his genius.
This is the reason why the two arts have been often treated on

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an equal plane and embroidery is referred to as painting with
the needle.’

REGIONAL STYLES

1. SIND AND GUJARAT

As has been noted earlier, Gujarat has, for centuries been
renowned for the quality of its embroidery.

The richness of design and variety of stitches used in the
state is explained by one of the legends pertaining to Krishna.
On his way to Dwarka, Krishna fought and killed a demon
who had imprisoned a thousand women from various parts of
India. The freed women followed him and became his devotees
and companions. Through them different kinds of embroidery
came to the area.

Kama, the famous warrior of the Mahabharata, also
brought to the region the Kathis, a nomadic tribe of cattle
breeders. These, during their wanderings, gathered new motifs
and techniques of embroidery which were, naturally, added to
the styles contributed by the gopis. The tales of pathos and
heroism of their nomadic life and songs sung by their bards,
were depicted by them in their embroidery.

The main deities worshipped by them are Shiva and
Ganesh and small squares, called sthapana, are embroidered
with the figure of Ganesh and used for worship. The cobra, the
monkey, the tiger and elephant are favourite motifs which are
used along with geometrical compositions.

Sind, Kutch and Kathiawar are separated from each other
by narrow strips of the waters of the Arabian Sea. In the 9th
century A.D. the Arab conquerors of Sind established

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settlements on the coast of Kutch and raided the coasts of
Gujarat and Kathiawar. It was, therefore, inevitable that the
whole region would share strong cultural influences. Further
integration came in the 15th century with the conquest of Kutch
by the rulers of Ahmedabad.

Even though Sind is no longer a part of India no work on
Indian embroidery can be complete without mention of the work
done in Sind. The state has absorbed many influences which
are naturally reflected in embroidery. It was conquered by the
Arabs and has geographical proximity to Baluchistan, Punjab
and Kutch. The interlacing stitch worked over a laid foundation
of threads is widely used in Sind. This stitch appeared very
early in Germany and the Middle East from where it was
probably brought to Sind by the Arabs who were great
disseminators of culture. The influence of Baluchistan is also
easily discernable in the juxtaposition of colours and the use
of stitchery to produce abstract pattern often outlined in black
and white. The Baluchi work is finer but the Sindhi embroiderer
shows great vigour and creates fantastic effects by working on
a background made up of a variety of patterned cotton fabrics
joined together. The embroidery is sometimes done on printed
material or tie-dyed cloth. In such cases the background and
embroidery complement each other being used in different
proportions to produce the desired effect. In other cases,
however, the ground material is almost completely covered by
the embroidery. In some pieces the stitches are pulled so tightly
that the surface becomes firm and hard almost as if backed by
stiffened material. The overall effect is heightened by the use of
tiny mirrors, cowrie shells, silk tassels, glass beads, and silver
spangles.

The work is done in silk and cotton thread on cotton or
silk. The colours used are of various shades of red, orange,
yellow, violet, green, black, white, indigo, brown, pink,
turquoise, and blue. The stitches used are satin, straight, back,
chain, open chain, buttonhole, interlacing, couched straight,
laid threads, couched, crossed herringbone, oversewing (for
edges), stem, fly and darning. The interlaced stitch is used
around a central loop for affixing mirror discs. Chain stitch is

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often decorated with cross stitch to imitate couching. The
darning stitch is some-times as much as an inch in length.
Leaves and flowers are brought into sharp relief by the use of
a tight buttonhole stitch.

The Sindhis who settled in India after the partition of the
country brought their embroidery tradition with them and it is
now as much a part of Indian embroidery tradition as any other.

Embroidery upon silk probably evolved from the leather
embroidery produced by the mochis (cobblers) of Sind. What
is interesting is that these same artisans, using a refined version
of the same tool (ari) switched over to embroidering garments
and other silk articles thus relinquishing their age old profession
of producing leather goods. Others who took up the work were
Kunbis and Ahirs, cultivators and cowherds, who also turned
away from their caste occupation to adopt an entirely different
trade.

The work of this area shows a delicacy and refinement
that can only be the result of court patronage. Designs are large
and flat done in one or two basic colours to which are added
lines of other colours to provide details, such as the veins of
leaves, the pistil of flowers and the varied hues of the peacock.

The basic work is done in chain stitch, although borders
can be finished with rows or couching or herringbone stitch
with chain stitch motifs between the lines. Occasionally, pieces
of mirror or mica are introduced to give a touch of glitter to the
work.

The motifs employed are peacock, elephants, fans, parrots,
canopies, arches, flowering shrubs, flowers, leaves, human
figures, and butis (polka dots). Large sized polka dots are known
as Nadir Shahi butis.

In Northern Kutch the best work is done by the Jats of the
Banni tract and the Lohanas of Khavada. The former
immigrated here from Baluchistan and their work retains the
small intricate geometric patterns of their country of origin. Their
embroidery is generally done on gajji (satinlike material) and is
ornamented with small pieces of mirror cut into shapes of

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flowers and petals. The original geometric patterns, over a
period blended happily with the indigenous Kutchi floral
ornamentation. Their dress is different from the ghagra, choli
and odhni of the rest of the area. The long dress (aba) of the
women is worn over ankle-length salwars which are embroidered
at the lower part of the legs visible under the aba. (The aba was
worn by itself in Kashmir but in recent years the salwar has
become an integral part of the dress of the area). The aba is
embroidered at neck, sleeve and hem. There is a pointed yoke-
panel at the front of the bodice which sometimes extends to
join a floral medallion below the waist The back is also often
ornamented.

The Lohana work is in chain stitch and open chain stitch
and is liberally embellished with small mirrors. A large octagonal
motif, composed of a number of floral butis, dominates a ground
composed of small motifs. This is very similar to the veils and
sarees decorated with tie and dye motifs used in Rajasthan.
The embroidery done on silk was fine but the work done on
cotton for bed spreads and garments was much bolder with a
distinctly folk flavour.

An extraordinary item of embroidery that has been taken
note of by few authors is the pichhwais (temple hangings) that
decorate so many temples. Painted pichhwais are well known
and are found in museums as well as private collections but
embroidered ones are rare even in museums since, once
consecrated, the piece remained in the temple until worn out
when it would normally be destroyed. Fortunately, a number of
them are preserved in the Calico Textile Museum in Ahmedabad.

In Gujarat, Lord Krishna is worshipped in various
manifestations. The temples dedicated to him in Western and
Central India carry on a continuous service. At set times of the
day worshippers go to the shrine for darshan. The idol is then
revealed richly dressed and surrounded by hangings which
depict the season, festival, time of day or special incidents from
the life of the God.

The hangings were made at the order of the devotees for
offering as gifts to the temple. Many of the embroidered ones

INDIAN EMBROIDERY

seem to have been copied from the painted ones originating
from Rajasthan. So skilfully is the embroidery done that, except
for some puckering of the cloth, it can, at first sight, be mistaken
for a painting. Trees, flowers, clouds, peacocks, birds, devotees,
cowherds, celestial beings and the God Himself are all depicted
with organised restraint. Not a stitch is redundant and the
colours give depth and harmony to the composition. Others
show the ground covered with floral motifs while cows line the
borders on all four sides. Apart from the pichhwais there were
covers for the steps of a shrine and pray-beads pouch in the
shape of a head of a cow (gaumukhi). Krishna, Ganesha, Nandi
and various other Hindu deities are depicted on these items.

Jain devotional embroidery forms one of the important
branches of the art in Gujarat Articles for religious use have to
be in perfect condition. Any flaw — a crack in a statue, any
fraying of material or loosening of the embroidery threads —
make the article unfit for use and must immediately be
discarded.

The items embroidered included book covers for covering
the rich collection of manuscripts preserved in famous
monastries and temples. Other items were canopies, articles of
presentation to monks and nuns and wall hangings. These were
embroidered in silk or silver and silver-gilt thread and bore
typical characteristics of Jain painting — the protruding eye, the
long pointed nose, the slight touch of a double chin.

One of the oldest pieces of embroidery found in India,
dating from the 15th or 16th century, is of Jain origin and is
now in the Calico Museum in Ahmedabad. It is a part of a
cloth made for presentation to a Jain nun. It shows eight
Vidyadevis (Goddesses of Knowledge) seated under canopies
with their vahanas (vehicles) placed below them. In the spandrels
are deep impressions into which discs of metal or jewels were
originally attached. On each panel was an inscription of three
lines of devanagari script worked in kusha grass. The inscriptions
have almost completely disappeared, only a few letters being
visible where prick marks of the needle remain. Red, indigo,
turquoise blue, green and yellow silk are used along with strands

INDIAN EMBROIDERY

of the sacred kusha grass which is laid and couched with fine
silk. The ground material is cotton unlike later objects which
are mostly made of velvet or silk.

The motifs are sacred or floral. Book covers mostly show
the Fourteen Auspicious Dreams which are dreamt by the
mother of each Tirthankara as she lies ‘in a state between
sleeping and waking’. In the centre is the four-armed Goddess
Mahalakshmi. Below her is the dream of the ocean, usually
represented by a ship in full sail. The elephant, the bull, the
lion, the vase, the lotus lake, the Rosary, the moon, the sun, the
celestial mansion, the heap of jewels and flames are depicted
in different ways.

Hangings (Puthias) used for placing behind a priest when
he delivers a sermon show inscriptions; mystic diagrams of the
universe; an empty throne with a bolster under a canopy of
State, with fly whisks on either side indicating supreme dignity;
flowers and small flowering shrubs. Apart from the gold and
silver thread used for embroidery, both the Jain and Hindu
work was embellished with pieces of metal, glass or even
precious and semi-precious stones. The stitches used are chain
stitch, skin stitch, satin stitch, straight stitch, laid work with
couching in a variety of designs with touches of patchwork.

The folk embroidery of Kutch is done in cotton thread on
cotton cloth. Yellow, saffron, white, purple and green are
favourite colours. The work is done with darning and
herringbone stitches and the motifs include those named above
along with the sunflower, mango shoots and creepers. Glitter
is produced by liberal use of mirrors in various shapes arranged
in different ways. Neatness is achieved by pulling out a single
thread and using that as the base. The stitches are made by
carefully counting the threads of the ground material to produce
an immaculately precise appearance.

The items produced are for everyday use. The covering
for the backs of bullock are even more gorgeously embroidered
than are clothes worn by people. Then, there are tasselled covers
for the animals’ horns and covers for the forehead, face and
the muzzle so that only the eyes remain unadorned. The pataras

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(huge wooden boxes) used for storing clothes and valuables
have special embroidered covers made for them as have
blankets and quilts.

Kathiawar, which took its name from the Kathis, shows a
strongly folk element in its embroidery. The area is very rich in
embroidered goods since the art is used for decorating even
the humblest home. The toran, or valance, that graces the
doorway and offers a welcome to the visitor, is only a foretaste
of what one finds on entering the house. Sometimes the
embroidery does not stop at the top of the door but extends
down the two sides to form a complete and beautifully decorated
doorway.

Inside the house, small square and rectangular pieces of
embroidery (chaklas and chandrawas) decorate the furniture
and hang on walls. The chaklas come with the bride’s trousseau
wrapped in them and are later used to hang on walls. The
bhitiya, a wall hanging, becomes especially ornamental by being
made up of a combination of embroidered pieces. All these
combine to produce a colourful sparkling interior bringing beauty
and grace into the humblest home and the most humdrum life.

The work has been traditionally done by women at home
and depicts the exploits of Gods and men along with much
loved animals, birds and flowers. Scenes of rural life hold a
mirror to the activities of the people of the area.

The designs are hand-drawn on cotton cloth and are
worked with silk floss (beer). The embroidery is done in long
stitches, use being made of tiny mirror to give glitter to the
centres of flowers or eyes of animals and birds.

Various influences have been brought into Kathiawar
embroidery. In the 19th century, the mochi embroiderers
employed by the Kathis brought in a new sophistication but, as
happened in the art of painting all over India, the craftsmen
used the motifs dear to the hearts of their partrons while using
their own techniques. The ari-work chain stitch of the mochis
was also combined with the decorative needle-work stitches of
the Kathis to produce a whole new range of stitches and designs.

INDIAN EMBROIDERY

Another synthesis took place when the Mahajans, the
merchants of the Southern and Western districts of Kathiawar,
who produced work of geometric ornamentation with mirrors
began to employ mochis to embroider for them. This, along
with influences absorbed from Europeans and Parsees, diluted
the austerity of the original Mahajan design and produced work
that was an amalgam of styles. The rural workers themselves
absorbed new influences, copying the floral designs of the
mochis. The long stitches done in silk floss covering the entire
surface of the base material bears a strong resemblance to the
bagh and phulkari of the Punjab.

Very elementary devices are used to create maximum
effect. A square is divided by two diagonal lines creating four
triangles. A single mirror is placed at the point where the apex
of the triangles meet. The long stitches are placed vertically and
horizontally in each alternating triangle to create a rippling effect
of light and shade without changing either material or stitch.

This technique is used to maximum effect in the quilts
known as gudari. The layers of material, usually white, are held
together with tiny black running stitches placed in rows over
the whole surface. Bold embroidered motifs of birds, animals,
deities, plants and flowers are skilfully spaced so that their rich
coloured threads and glittering mirrors form the perfect
counterpoint to the black stitches and the white material of the
background.

A variation of the embroidered quilt is the one in which
the surface material is printed and the design is produced by
sewing four or five plain bands of different coloured material
around the edges. The tiny stitches in one of the colours of the
print which cover the fabric, depress and raise it enough to
relieve it from the ordinariness of mere printing.

Apart from the long stitch the Kathis use the chain stitch
also. The interlacing stitch is also used though rather sparingly.
Patchwork is another favourite. Pieces of silk and gold brocade
and fabric ornamented by the tie and dye process are used to
give beautiful variegated hues to the finished products. Different
animals, humans and landscapes are created by cutting the

.MiMm

Bead Embroidery of Gujarat

Mirror Embroidery of Gujarat

Kantha embroidery, West Bengal

Fine chikan work on malmal, Lucknow

Hand embroidered Kashmiri Shawls

Namda embroidery Kashmir

Embroidery on bed cover, Kashmir

Embroidered Saree, Bengal

Kantha embroidery, Bengal

Phulkari stitch Punjab, Haryana

Some samples of Indian Embroidery

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pieces and putting them together to create the desired pattern —
a garden in bloom, a mythological story or a hunting scene.
The work is done on white ground, the applique being in different
coloured cotton cloth, the patterned materials being used to
depict decorative details. Large square panels of material are
sometimes fretted in formal designs through which the white of
the base material shows to advantage. Applique is used for
articles such as festival hangings, covers of carriages and back
clothes of animals. Mirrors are often used to enhance the effect
of the applique.

Whether the animals are real of mythological — the gajasinha
(half elephant half lion), the kinnara (half fish, half elephant) —
and whether the scene shows humans or Gods, a striking feature
of Kathiawar embroidery is the movement with which each
figure is imbued. One can almost see the wheels of the chariot
turn as the horse pulls it forward. Singers sing, dancers dance,
devotees worship, horses gallop and elephants move at a brisk
pace. Even in pieces where the drawing is elementary and closely
resembles the drawing done by primitive man in caves, the
sense of movement is never lost. Nothing is ever static and the
work is always full of life and vigour.

BEAD WORK

Beads, transparent and semi-transparent are extensively
used in Kathiawar to produce a remarkable line of embroidery.
Unlike other places where the beads are stitched on cloth to
form a pattern, here they are used with no backing material at
all. A large number of different beads and a needle and thread
are the only materials with which the craftsmen creates chaklas,
door hangings, belts, bags, pot covers and a variety of other
objects. The design is, so to say, woven with the needle and
thread. The work is done row by row on a tri-bead system,
three beads being taken up at each stitch. On the return row
the stitching of the bead moves forward in one position so that
a tight network is created. Usually the background is white with
the pattern in different colours. The same motifs are used here
as on cloth embroidery. Even though the patterns are, of

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necessity, more geometric than in ordinary embroidery, the sense

of movement is achieved in ingenious ways - by bending a

leg, elongating an arm or giving a decided bent to the reins of
a horse.

The craft developed in India in the 19th century when beads
were brought here by European traders as articles of trade.

CHINAI OR CHINESE EMBROIDERY

Trade links between the West coast of India and China
had existed for a long time. The Parsees were especially active
in this trade. Groups of Chinese craftsmen settled in different
parts of India. In Surat, Chinese embroiderers turned out work
that was Chinese in conception and execution but was suited
to their Indian clientele. Saris, cholis, children’s dresses were
embroidered on silk with silk floss or tightly spun two-ply silk
that was not normally used in India.

The designs consisted of cartouches enclosing birds and
flowers linked together with panels of formal ornament. Flying
cranes, cocks with tails spread and doves were other motifs
used. The work was done in satin stitch, straight stitch, knot
stitch, chain stitch and stem stitch in white, red, various shades
of pink, green, blue and lilac.

The work is different enough from Indian embroidery to
be recognisable at a glance. At one time it was highly priced
and greatly valued by fashion conscious people.

2. KASHMIR

Embroidery, along with other arts, came to the Kashmir
valley when the ruler, Zain-ul-Abedin Shah (1423-1474 A.D.)
invited artists from Iran to train the local people into a wide
range of crafts. Successive rulers continued to give
encouragement to the workers and the Mughals, who were
enchanted with the area and spent the summers there, extended
their informal patronage to the valley and turned all its crafts
into arts. This patronage, combined with the natural artistic
aptitude of the people, gave a firm basis to the crafts which,

INDIAN EMBROIDERY

through the centuries have flourished as a cottage industry
producing objects of unmatched delicacy and elegance.

In Kashmir embroidery is known as Kashida, a Persian
word which, among others, means embroidery as well as
drawing. It uses simple stitches such as the satin, stem, chain
and long and short stitches and makes occasional use of the
herringbone, button hole and darning stitches. The jali, open
work, is used to produce a lace like effect The work is done on
silk with single silk thread.

The refinement of Kashmir work surpasses that done
anywhere else in the country. Not only does the embroiderer
produce surface designs of great intricacy and fineness but he
excels in the dorukha, the double-sided work in which both
sides are the same so that there is no right or wrong side and
the article can be used from both sides. A further refinement of
this is when the colours on both sides are different This is done
especially on shawls which are the great pride of Kashmir. The
woven Jamewar shawls, the ultimate product of the loom, show
innumerable refinements such as delicate shadings on flower
and bud, details of the plumage of birds and the same dorukha
effect in which even the ground colour on both sides is different.
But the ambli, the embroidered Jamewar, achieves extra
richness by using delicate filling in stitches in threads of different
colours to enhance the effect of the woven material.

The valley of Kashmir is one of the most beautiful natural
area in the world. Surrounded by mountains the valley reflects
them in innumerable placid lakes and paddy fields. Poplars,
chenars and cypresses dominate the scene along with other
trees like the walnut, almond, plum, apple and cherry. The
climate is temperate and the flora reflects it The iris, the tulip,
the lily, plum, almond and apple blossoms flourish along with
the lotus, the pomegranate, of course, the lovely saffron flower,
a field of which seen in bloom is said to be so beautiful that it
makes the observer burst out laughing. The colours are there
but they lack the exuberance of the flora of tropical regions.

All these shapes and colours are, naturally, reflected in the
crafts of the area. Surrounded by so much of nature’s bounty

INDIAN EMBROIDERY

the craftsman does not have to look elsewhere for his designs.
The chenar leaf and the tall, tapering cypress dominate Kashmir
designs. Among the birds the kingfisher is a great favourite
followed by the magpie, the parrot, the woodpecker and the
canary. Human figures are used only in the shikargah, hunting
scenes which was a favourite pattern for shawls.

The designs are always evenly balanced and even though
the pattern may show numerous flowers, leaves, fine stems and
curving stalks, a sense of restraint is always evident keeping
the decoration well under control and never allowing it to
overflow the boundaries of good taste. Shades of red, pink,
blue, yellow, mauve, green and white are used but these reflect
the natural colours of the objects depicted and are always subtly
blended to avoid garishness. The whole effect is flat and
formalised.

This type of embroidery is done on articles of personal
wear such as shawls, blouses, sarees, and on table linen. The
really fine work requires years of training. A visit to a Kashmir
craft centre shows how the system works. In a row on the floor
of course, sit the workers, all men. The youngest, usually a boy
of about eight years old, sits at one end and the oldest, a man
sometimes well over 60 years old sits at the other end. In between
sit others graded according to age. The boy does the most
elementary work on the piece being worked upon. He then
passes on the work to the next man who does the slightly more
complicated work. The work is thus handled by different people
according to their degrees of expertise until it reaches the oldest
man who puts in the final and most difficult touches. The
apprenticeship system, which can be the only possible method
of achieving excellence in handicrafts, is still as much in vogue
as it has ever been.

Coarser and more sturdy embroidery is done with the awl
or crewel on yards of thick, cotton material used for making
curtains, cushions and on floor coverings such as namdas
(carpets), gabbas (floor-covering) and chain stitch rugs. In all
these the chain stitch is used in varying degrees of thickness.
The yard goods are usually done in floral designs and when the

INDIAN EMBROIDERY

whole surface needs to be ornamented, flowers and leaves are
joined together with curling stems. A line of dark colour
immediately next to that in a light colour gives an impression
of depth and richness. The embossed effect created by the work
makes it a nice change from printed or woven materials and
accounts for its great demand in the international market

Namdas are made by pressing felt together. They are then
embroidered with chain stitch. At one time they were
considered the cheapest floor covering but designers have taken
a hand in them and made them so attractive that they have
become an art form and have been raised from the floor to the
wall where they hang in place of pictures.

Chain stitch rugs are done in pastel shades on hessian
cloth and are extremely attractive. The whole surface is covered
with the embroidery and is then backed with strong cotton
backing material to give them strength and body. The light pinks,
blues, creams and greens, blend together in such an aesthetic
whole that the rugs become almost too beautiful to be placed
on the floor. Bags, screens and cushion covers are other
applications of this art.

Gabbas are made from old worn out blankets pressed
together. Felt applique in bold designs is held down with chain
stitch done with a hook. The designs are bold and can be floral
or geometrical. Special designs are made to suit any taste or
meet any demand. Thus, those made for children’s rooms show
scenes from fairy tales or nursery rhymes or birds and animals.

If imitation is the best form of flattery, the Kashmir
craftsman has been exposed to such flattery for centuries. In
the 19th century, beautiful Kashmir Jamewar shawls were
reproduced on power looms in England and France. The designs
have been printed on shawls and scarves in Czechoslovakia
and by the famous firm Liberty of England.

3. PUNJAB AND HARYANA

Embroidery has for centuries been part of the education
of every well brought up Punjabi girl. The Granth Sahib, the

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religious book of the Sikhs, says “Kadh Kasida pehreh choli,
Ta Turn Janoh Nan” (Only when you have yourself embroidered
your choli will you be considered an accomplished woman).

The phulkari is the glory of the Punjab and Haryana
regions. The word meaning “flower working” atone time meant
any embroidery, but later came to be restricted to embroidered
odhnis, long sheets for covering the head and shoulders. Worked
in silk floss on cotton cloth the phulkari and bagh (as the more
profusely embroidered pieces came to be called) became, over
a period of time, an integral part of the life and tradition of the
people. By the middle of the 19th century, the accomplishment
of a bride and her mother and the affluence of the family were
judged by the number and elaboration of the phulkaris and
baghs that she received as part of her trousseau. Ceremonial
pieces, especially made for the occasion, would cover a girl at

various times of her life - during the wedding, after the birth

of her children, during festivals and ceremonies and at the time
of her death.

Other pieces would be used as curtains, wall hangings,
cushions and bed covers.

The work was done entirely by women during their leisure
hours and was meant exclusively for personal use having no
commercial value. The care and attention bestowed on it was,
therefore, unlimited. Since the women vied with each other in
producing the best pieces each one became a canvas for the
maximum expression of imagination and skill.

The embroidery for the girl’s trousseau began almost as
soon as she was bom. Appropriate ceremonies and prayers,
followed by distribution of sweets and prasad, marked the
beginning of the embroidery by the child’s mother or
grandmother.

Sometimes the cloth was woven at home, at others it was
bought from the village weaver. The looms being small, the width
of the cloth ranged between 45 and 60 centimetres. Two or two
and half pieces would, therefore, be joined lengthwise to produce
the required width. The coarser the cloth the easier it was to
do the work, for the basic structure of the embroidery depended

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on careful counting of threads of the base fabrics. A material
in which the threads were very fine required great skill, patience
and time to embroider. The coarser material had to be selected
with care for if it had too many uneven threads the quality of
work would suffer. The sturdy material used had lasting quality
and the labour involved in the embroidery would not be wasted
because of the fragility of the material. Covered with the silk floss
of the embroidery the odhni was not only beautiful but also
provided adequate protection against the cold northern winters.

The material could be dyed at home by the women
themselves or commercially by the village dyer. The most
favoured colour was red in its various shades. Brown, blue,
white and black were also extensively used. Green was rarely
used and a green phulkari in the Calico Textile Museum at
Ahmedabad is unusual. Dark shades being more practical were
preferred, although white cloth was preferred by elderly ladies
for their own use.

Soft, untwisted silk floss called “Fat” used in the work came
from Afghanistan, Kashmir and Bengal and even China and
was dyed in different places in the Punjab. The most frequently
used colours were yellow, red, crimson, blue, white, brown,
orange, violet and green. Apart from the silk, cotton and even
woollen threads were used, sometimes in conjunction with the
silk threads and sometimes alone.

The work was done with a single thread which, being fluffy
and liable to break, had to be handled very carefully. As the
work progressed the part that was completed had a white muslin
cloth placed on it and was rolled up and tied in a clean white
cloth to prevent soiling. The work would continue on the
remaining portion.

As in Kathiawar embroidery, the Phulkari derives its
richness from the use of the darning stitch placed in different

directions - vertical, horizontal and diagonal. The

embroidery is done from the wrong side. The pattern is controlled
by the counting of the thread, but quite often the outline of the
pattern is embroidered on the cloth in green thread. The needle
picks up only one thread at a time so that at the back the pattern

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is delineated with single lines of colour in extremely fine stitches.
In the front the stitch ranges from V2 to lA cm in size. In the
bagh, a single thread of the base material separates one pattern
from the other. Thus an area is divided into twelve squares by
this fine line, the squares themselves being covered with stitches
going in different directions. Being done on such thick material
the embroiderer can work without a frame since there is no
likelihood that the cloth will pucker.

The stitches used are darning, stem, herringbone, satin,
straight, back, running, blanket, split, cross and chain.

Phulkari differs from bagh in that in the former larger
portions of the base material are visible, the design being
scattered. In the latter, the embroidery covers the surface so as
to become the material itself. In another form, the chope, which
is presented to the bride by her grandmother-in-law the
embroidery is done in yellow with occasional touches of blue
or green only on the borders , the field, always red, being left
plain. Here there is no right or wrong side the stitches being
even on both sides.

The bagh, literally garden, is so named because it takes its
inspiration from nature. They are named for various
vegetables — kakri (cucumber), mirchi (chilli), dhaniya
(coriander), gobhi (cauliflower) and so on. Others are named
after well-known gardens laid by Mughal and other rulers —
Shalimar, Charbagh, Chaurasia — attempt to depict their layout.
Still others are named after cowrie shells, waves (Lahirya) and
light and shade {dhup chhaon), the cypress (sara), river (dariya)
and so on. The number of colours used also suggest names —
Pachranga and satranga — five and seven coloured. The Darshan
Dwar, meant for presentation to temples and religious institutions
after one’s wish is fulfilled, has an architectural design. Tall
gates face each other while numerous humans and animals pass
between them. In the Bawan (Fifty-two) Bagh, 52 different
geometric patterns are embroidered thus giving it its name.

The phulkaris are much less sophisticated but extremely
interesting. They reflect the daily life of the people and have
articles of daily use such as combs, toys, fans, various pieces

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of jewellery, animals, birds and folk motifs embroidered on them.
The depiction can be either naturalistic or stylised. Women can
be seen churning curd, winding yarn, grinding corn or just
walking. Men are shown with ploughs tilling fields, riding a horse
or just lying around. When men and women appear together,
sometimes the man beats his wife, at others she offers him a
glass of, perhaps, lassi and once in a while quarrels with him.
Morality is registered by an adulterous couple being bitten by
snakes from all sides. Progress is not forgotten and the railway
train chugs along belching smoke with passengers looking out
from each window.

Occasionally mirrors were inserted into the work giving it
a glittering appearance. The sheeshadar Phulkari, as it is called,
was extremely popular in parts of Haryana. Sometimes, though
very rarely, small pieces of silver would be introduced to enhance
the value of the piece.

Superstition being an integral part of the life of an Indian
it is natural that those practising the crafts cannot be immune
from it. As a device to ward off the evil eye the embroiderer
would make a magnificent piece of work less perfect by

introducing some imperfection - a small corner done in a

different pattern or left plain; the use of some coloured thread
at odds with the general colour scheme; an animal or bird
outlined and not filled in; a small “Om” embroidered in a corner
or just leaving a thread hanging to indicate that the work was
not completed, were other ways of keeping off evil spirits.

Once in a while one or more names can be found
embroidered in a corner. They may be the names of the women
who have worked on the piece or may be the name of the owner
and another member of the family.

From the end of the 19th century, when there was economic
distress, phulkaris and baghs became commercial commodities
but they were still mainly retained for personal use. In 1947
when refugees poured into India they were sold in great
quantities to bring in necessities of daily life. Now they are
manufactured only commercially since changing conditions and
tastes have, more or less, eliminated their traditional use.

INDIAN EMBROIDERY

4. HIMACHAL PRADESH

The town of Chamba, situated on the river Ravi, was one
of the important centres of miniature painting as it developed
in what was formerly known as the Punjab Hills. The Kangra
style with the dreamlike quality of the background peopled with
women of porcelain like beauty developed its own characteristics
in Chamba.

While the painter was employed by his patron, the raja
and his nobles, to record important happenings in the court, to
paint mythological subjects, to depict the various musical modes
(the Ragamala), the seasons (Baramasa) and to show lovers in
various stages of the agony and ecstasy of love (nayika series),
the ladies of the court produced the sama motifs with their
needles and with an equal amount of skill.

They had a ready reference for their work in the murals
executed in the rooms and verandahs of their quarters. These
murals, the composite work of many artistes, were, in effect
miniature paintings done on walls. The paintings were laid out
in small panels usually 60 cm x 75 cm and were surrounded
by floral borders. The ladies reproduced them in their
embroidery down to the floral borders.

The rumals, handkerchiefs, were used on all festive
occasions as a symbol of goodwill and affection. They were
presented as gifts and were used for wrapping gifts exchanged
at weddings.

They were also used for covering dishes full of food. A
miniature painting of the 18th century in the Lucknow Museum
shows a lady carrying a dish covered with an embroidered
rumal.

The rumals are made of fine cotton or muslin and are
embroidered with silk and sometimes with silver and silver gilt
wire. It is presumed that the subjects were drawn in outline by
the women themselves. However, certain unfinished rumals
show such sophistication of drawing that it seems that they
were drawn by the painters, usually in earth-red colour.

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The figures are finely drawn and life like and, especially
in the nayak-nayika paintings the faces are strongly imbued with
the expression desired to be depicted. Thus the Abhisarika
Nayika “she who goes out to seek her lord” is shown so intent
on her purpose that though she braves flashes of lightening and
pouring rain, with snakes dashing across her path, she is not
daunted but lifts her skirt and goes on. The Abhisandhita
Nayika, “she who has rejected her beloved, sits in deep
dejection while he turns his back and departs” holds up her
hand as if pleading and looks towards her lover who has turned
his back to her and is walking away. The Vipralabdha Nayika
“she who keeps an appointment but her lover does not come”
is shown standing beside an empty couch with her arms
outstretched as she tears off her jewels and throws them on the
ground. In the Calico Textile Museum at Ahmedabad there is
a rumal showing eight heroines (Ashtanayika). Each is
described in brush drawn in devanagri script All except two of
the scenes take place indoors, the architecture being depicted
by small domed pavilions on the roof. Each panel is separated
by-a floral band and the action takes place within a specified
space with enough blank space left around it to give it
individuality and to separate it from the rest of the scenes. There
is, so to say, embroidery within embroidery, costumes, cushions
and carpets being decorated with floral patterns.

One of the favourite themes of the Chamba embroiderer
as of the painter, were the playful antics of Krishna with Radha
and other gopis. He is shown with her in various poses while
gopis dance for their enjoyment and gopas play the conch shells
and hold up the lotus flower as a salutation to the God. The
rasalila in which Krishna dances with the gopis not as a single
person but as a multiple manifestation of Himself so that each
gopi finds herself dancing with Him individually is also a great
favourite.

Other deities, such as Shiva, Ganesha, Durga, Vishnu,
Parvati, Lakshmi, are also shown. In a rumal at the Indian
Museum, Calcutta, they are shown attending a marriage. In
scenes of festivity a variety of musical instruments such as the

INDIAN EMBROIDERY

veena, the tanpura, cymbals and drums are played by both
men and women.

Scenes of battle and hunting are depicted with great
imagination and sensitivity. In the former the rumal will show
one army pressing the attack into the enemy’s ground. Individual
combat within the general battle shows men being unhorsed
and swordsmen rushing in for the kill. A decapitated body is
shown with the head lying to one side. In hunting scenes a
variety of animals — bears, tigers, deer — are shown being
attacked with various weapons — the muzzle gun, sword, spear,
bow and arrow and the noose.

Chaupar, a game of dice played on two long bands of
cloth joined together to form a cross, was a favourite game for
both men and women. The embroiderer fills the middle ground
with the decorated chaupar cloth while four sets of players sit
on the four sides sometimes puffing on the hookah between

moves and sometimes in animated conversation - perhaps

discussing the next move.

Banana and other trees, the lotus, peacock, parrots,
flowering shrubs, monkeys, deer, fishes, clouds, cranes, all give
a natural background to the scene depicted. The canvas teems
with life giving a tremendous sense of movement to the
composition.

The embroidery is done in soft shades in small double
darning stitches which appear the same on both sides. Outlines
and details are worked in double running stitch and sometimes
small patterns on costumes and other details are shown in
coloured darning stitch. Satin and herringbone stitches, zig¬
zag and interlaced running stitches couching for silver gilt wire,
long and short and satin stitches, gross and blanket stitches are
also used. The finest rumals are closer to painting than
embroidery while the less sophisticated ones have the pattern
only on one side and the stitches do not lie so close together.

The colours used are shades of blue, yellow, orange, black,
crimson, indigo, brown, grey, white, pink, turquoise, violet, red
and coral.

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All these rumals have floral borders on all four sides. The
only exception to this are the ones that were embroidered in
geometric patterns on the lines of the bagh and phulkari work.
These are either finished off with buttonhole stitch or the
geometric pattern covering the cloth is considered complete in
itself and no border is made.

Obviously, craftmen showing such a high degree of skill
are not going to restrain themselves to the production of a single
item. Cholis, caps, hand fans, bed spreads, pillow covers and
triangular pieces for wrapping books were all profusely and
beautifully embroidered. However, these items show a much
stronger folk influence that the rumals.

The cholis are patterned to mould the breasts and to
slenderise the arms and, where they extend so far, the stomach.
The embroidery on the cups is ingeniously devised to show
them to maximum advantage. The many petalled lotus starting
from a small centre and spreading out to cover the whole cup
cannot but attract the eye to that part of the anatomy. Often
tiny mirrors produce the same effect. Mica pieces are used on
caps, fans etc. to given an appearance of glitter. Caps are worn

by both men and women - the women’s caps sometimes

having a panel that extends down the back. A circular motif is
embroidered at the top and a floral or geometrical motif around
the rim.

As in other parts of the country, so here also the designs
are based on nature, mythology, articles of everyday use and
happenings of everyday life. Thus Gods and Goddesses, kings
and ordinary men are shown in action or sitting sedately.
Animals, birds and trees can be natural or highly formalised.
Geometrical designs are also very popular.

Colours are bright and bold — orange, red, black, yellow,
ultramarine, purple, pink and green.

The greatest influence on this work is that of Kathiawar
and Punjab. In fact, some of the work done can be mistaken
for that of Kathiawar. The similarity to the bagh of the Punjab
is also unmistakable. Since the court work was imbued with

INDIAN EMBROIDERY

these influences it was inevitable that they would filter down to
the common people and enrich their work and their lives.

5. BENGAL

As has been seen earlier, Bengal has an old tradition of
embroidery. It has enjoyed international repute for the fineness
of the muslins woven in Dacca. With exquisite names like
Running Water these were woven plain or patterned with thicker
threads of white cotton providing opaque patterns on the fine
ground. The jamdani again white on white, was woven by a
brocading technique. The embroidery of Dacca followed the
same process. The pallus and borders of sarees were finely
embroidered with the same motifs of the cypress, leaf and stem
used by the weaver. In addition to the white on white was the
natural colour of wild silk thread to provide richness and a light
and shade effect to the work. Silver-gilt wire was sometimes
used to enhance the effect

Shawls, sarees, coats, girdles were all embroidered in this
way. Stem stitch, running stitch, long and short stitch, chain
stitch, laid work of silver gilt wire over a padded foundation of
yellow cotton thread all went to augment the woven design of
the fabric for embroidery was done on both plain and patterned
materials creating effects of subdued richness and elegance.

The bedspreads and hangings that found so much favour
with Western clients were made of fine cotton cloth filled with
finely ginned cotton and were embroidered with yellow silk on
the entire surface. The embroidery was done with Tussar, Muga
or Eri yarn which was unknown in the West which was
cognisant only with fine cultivated silk yarn. It was known as
Herba since it was presumed to be derived from a herb. It was
only in 1691 that the Dutch botanist Rumphius actually
dissected the cocoons that he saw suspended from trees and
discovered the chrysalis inside. Before that he had taken it for
granted that they were the fruit of the tree.

Then East India Company’s Court Minutes dated February
25, 1618 record “Then was put to sale (in London) a Bengalla

INDIAN EMBROIDERY

quilt of 3-3A yards long and 3 yards broad to be paid for in
ready money, embroidered all over with pictures of men and
crafts in yellow silk, Mr. Henry Garway bidding £ 20 for it.”
The following year the Company’s factors at Agra were
instructed to send quilts “stitched with birds, beasts or work
very thick, such as used by the Moors instead of carpets. Of
this sort there comes, it seems, from Bengalla.” In 1629
Sebastian Manrique, a Portuguese missionary wrote, “Among
the more important commodities dealt in by the Portuguese in
Bengal are very rich back-stitched quilts, bed-hangings,
pavilions and other curious articles worked with hunting scenes
which are made in these kingdoms.”

The animals and humans that so fascinated the buyers
were very close to the folk art of Bengal. Along with indigenous,
mythological and secular themes are those that show the
Portuguese engaged in various activities, including the hunt,
with their own countrymen as well as with Indians. In the old
Indian tradition of painting the narrative unfolds in self-
contained panels; the hierarchical character of the work reveals
itself in enlarging the most important figures so that they dwarf
the entire landscape.

Chain stitch, back stitch, knot stitch, open work produced
by lines of back stitch pulled to produce small holes are all used
in the natural colour of the silk.

The work was done at Satgaon, the old mercantile capital
of Bengal, which from 1537 onwards lost its pre-eminence to
the port of Hughli founded by the Portuguese.

The same tradition of quilting and embroidery, though in
a more folkish form has persisted in Bengal. The Kantha used
as quilt, shawl, handkerchief, pillow cover, cover for mirror,
combs and toilet articles, is made entirely by women and is a
marvellous example of the recycling of waste material towards
the production of artistic goods. Old, worn outsarees and dhotis
are placed one above the other, the best ones on top, the rest
providing the filling. The borders have previously been unpicked
to yield the thread which would be used for the embroidery.
The word Kantha itself means patched cloth.

INDIAN EMBROIDERY

The embroidery, usually done in simple running and darning
stitches worked through all the layers of the material to form a
pattern both at the front and the back, is started at the centre
usually with a lotus medallion. From this the work proceeds
outward covering the whole surface with a variety of designs.

The surface not covered by the embroidery is often quilted
with white running stitches made with five or six threads put
into the needle to hold the material firmly together. The border
is closely embroidered to provide a firm edge to the quilt. When
the Kantha is finished it becomes a thick covering and it appears
to be one piece of thick material rather than a number of fine
ones welded together.

Herringbone, chain, satin, straight, double running, double
darning, blanket stitch (for edges), couched are used in various
combinations in different pieces.

The designs are a blend of religious and secular. Gods
and Goddesses, human beings, lions and tigers, trees, flowers,
nut crackers, hoodahs, beds, chariots, palanquins all blend
cheerfully with a host of other motifs in various permutations
and combinations.

A special kind of kantha has for its inspiration a weave
that has long been discontinued. It exists now only in the kantha.
By reproducing the same pattern in each row on a circular or
linear arrangement by flat running stitches, the embroiderer
skilfully creates an impression of a woven material. This
perpetuation of the design could perhaps be explained by the
fact that the original design was woven by women and when,
for some reason, it lost its popularity as a commercial commodity
other women came forward to keep it alive though in a non-
-commercial garb.

Applique also appears on kanthas, though rarely. Thin strips
of coloured cloth are stitched with tiny invisible stitches to form
various designs. In large pieces the designs are bold and well
defined while on items of personal use they are proportionately
small and finely worked.

The making of the kantha provides women with an outlet
for self-expression. Although the themes are similar, it is in the

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working that individuality shows through as in other places.
This healthy competition brings liveliness and exuberance to
what could easily become a lifeless and static craft

6. BIHAR

Bihar has one of the longest art traditions in the country.
The University of Nalanda was renowned not only for its
disciplines of Humanities and the Sciences but also for its artistic
tradition. The sculptures of that period are noted for their
serenity, grace and flowing lines. The city of Patliputra was one
of the great metropolitan centres of the ancient world and its
kings and nobles offered patronage to a variety of arts.

One of the folk arts of Bihar that has captured the
imagination of the world is the mural painting done in
Madhubani. An essentially transient art, being executed on the
mud-plaster walls of small houses and renewed for each festive
season, the art has been given permanence by persuading
women to produce them in gouache on paper. Brightly coloured
earth and vegetable dyes are used along with lamp-black to
produce paintings of a startling vividness. They can be of the
narrative type but are mostly depictions of deities and their
symbols, scenes of everyday life and motifs from nature. The
bridal chamber is beautifully decorated with symbols of fertility
and during festivals the special deity connected with the occasion
is depicted in various manifestations. The brushes are cotton
wool or rags tied to twigs, the outlines being made by twigs
frayed at one end. The work is done by women and a small girl
learning to paint so that by the time she is grown up she has
fully mastered the art

Embroidery is also done by women as a home craft. It
is done on borders of saris, cholis and other articles of clothing
and decoration. Chain stitch is very popular, followed by the
Bharat which is akin to the Bagh of the Punjab, the stitch
following the warp and the weft. The chain stitch is done along
with applique on pieces of cloth, lace and tapes. A variation
of the Bharat is one in which the outline is made by a double
running stitch in black, the body being filled in with colour in

INDIAN EMBROIDERY

long and short stitch.

The designs show scenes of daily life and objects of daily
use, flowering trees, flying birds, fishes, elephants with rider,

deities whose attributes are reflected in various ways - the

energy emanating from Durga manifesting itself through the
prickly quality of the hair of the tiger on which she rides.

The sujanis of Bihar are similar to the kanthas of Bengal.
They are also made of old materials and embroidered with the
thread unpicked from borders of sarees and dhotis and are
made exclusively by women. However, they differ in technique.

They are more strongly folk in execution - the filling-in of the

motifs is done with blocks of running stitch worked in straight
lines rather than the spiral and whorls and cones of Bengal.
The outlines of the motifs are usually worked in herringbone
stitch in dark colours.

Applique is a great favourite and is done in two ways.
Different patterns may be cut into a single piece of material
which is to be attached to the ground material. This is known
as Khatwa and is similar to fretwork. In the other style motifs
are cut out individually and then attached to the ground material
in different compositions. A mixture of different textured fabrics
enhances the richness of the design and produces a chiaroscuro
effect of light and shade. As in the rest of India this applique
is used mostly for tents, shamianas and kanats which are so
popular for occasions which call for a large gathering of people.
The tradition started in the days when journeys were long and
time consuming. Cities of tents grew up every evening in different
places when a King or nobleman embarked on a journey. The
tents were of different sizes and served as bedrooms, reception
rooms, offices, etc. An army on the move required even more
accommodation and so the making and decoration of tents
became an art in itself.

The Bihar applique maker does something which the rest
of the country could copy with benefit. So that traditional
designs may not be lost they are collected on a master chart
called awalkhana which each following generation can copy
and, perhaps, improve upon.

INDIAN EMBROIDERY

7. UTTAR PRADESH

From the 3rd quarter of the 18th century when Oudh broke
away from the Mughal Empire and became a kingdom in its
own right it developed a culture of its own. Its capital, Lucknow,
became renowned for its manners and etiquette. It was not
robust sports that were cultivated here but exquisite refinements
in the art of living. Physical activity was abhorred. Only mental
exercise in the composition of verse, patronage of music and
dance and cognisance of the finer points of the art of living
were considered the mark of the gentleman. Time being of no
consequence unlimited attention was given to perfecting

nuances of dance - the kathak dancer could spend hours

depicting a single mood without really moving - meticulous

attention was paid to manners. The concept of politeness
reached such a height that no man wanted to do anything before
his companion for fear of being considered to be lacking in

manners. “Pehle aap” - you first - was carried to such an

extent that, according to a joke, a pair of twins remained in the
womb for so long that they were born with beard and
moustaches. It is said that Wajid Ali Shah, the last king of Oudh,
remained seated when the British came into the place to oust
him from the throne because the man who put his shoes on his
feet had run away and he did not know how to put on his own
shoes.

Men took hours over their toilet - hair and beard were

meticulously combed and oiled and the eyes were lined with
surma, kohl. During the summer young man would wear the
flimsiest kurtas, shirts, made of the finest muslin embroidered
in white to heighten the illusion of coolness.

Thus developed the famous chikan embroidery of Lucknow
(the word chikan just means embroidery). It is said to have been
originally introduced by Nur Jahan, the beautiful and talented
wife of the Mughal emperor Jehangir who evolved the first designs
but it attained its glory and perfection in Lucknow. The work
became popular in a number of important cities of the Indo-
Gangetic plain such as Delhi, Agra, Rampur, Banaras, Patna
and Gaya but the supremacy of Lucknow remained undisputed.

INDIAN EMBROIDERY

The embroidery was done on a locally woven muslin called
tanzeb, the pattern being stamped with small wooden blocks
using red earth colour which washed out after the embroidery
was completed. The design depended for its effect on the variety
of stitches used and the different grades of threads used to form

the patterns - the lace-like jali, the opaque fillings and the

delicacy or boldness of outline and details.

The most beautiful part of chikan work is the open work
ground which is achieved by pulling the threads apart with the
needle and then taking tiny stitches to hold them apart An effect
of drawn thread work is achieved without drawing out any
threads with infinite artistry, tiny raised flowers done in what
seems to be french knot but are just tiny stitches made close
together and tiny spiked leaves worked in thick thread would
be balanced by the flat stem stitch and large areas of open
work to prevent either a crowded or too scattered appearance.

Another variation of chikan work is the bakhia or shadow
work. Here the work is done from the back, the stitches
completely covering the design in a herringbone style. The
shadow of the thread is seen through the cloth on the right side.
To give a richer appearance, designs are produced with tiny
back stitches on the right side over the shadow. A similar effect
is created by cutting out tiny flowers and leaves in the same
material as the base fabric and then applying them on the wrong
side. The work is done so dexterously that the turned-in edges
of the cut pieces are scarcely visible from the front of the work.

The refinement of taste of the best chikan workers dictated
that not even the seams should be straight So the material of
kurtas was cut in waves along the sides. The two pieces were
cut so skilfully that they fitted each other exactly. They were
then stitched together to form an undulating line, a tiny piece
of material being left projecting at each of the in-going waves.
This was later stitched at the back of the material to create a

shadow effect All the seams of the kurta - six at the sides

and one each ‘down the sleeves - thus gave an appearance

of fishes swimming in water.

INDIAN EMBROIDERY

The stitches employed are back stitch, chain stitch, satin
stitch, buttonhole stitch, stem stitch, hem stitch forming an open
work pattern, jali or openwork ground. The introduction of
colour into the work is a very recent innovation.

The work is done by both men and women although the
finest work is produced by men. In 1880 William Hoey gave
a graphic description of the chikan industry of Lucknow. He
writes, “When one wanders through the Mohullas of the city,
where reduced Muhammadan families reside and where there
are poor Hindu families who need to add to the scant
subsistence offered by a small shop or by service, one sees
women and even small children busy with needle and muslin.
Thus the labour at the manufacturer’s command is cheap and
abundant He is able to undersell those who go to the market
from other places. This is one reason why the chikan business
has taken deep root in Lucknow...” He noted that chikan as a
commercial commodity was well established in northern,
western and central India and even in Calcutta.

Apart from chikan work Lucknow and certain other cities
of Uttar Pradesh excel in gold and silver embroidery but that
is dealt with in another chapter.

8. KARNATAKA

In Kannada the word for embroidery is Kasuti. As with the
chikan of Lucknow so with the Kasuti of Karnataka the word
has become identified with the particular type of embroidery
produced in that area. The best work is produced in the areas
once ruled by the great Chalukya and Vijayanagar empires
stressing the need for patronage for the achievement of
excellence in the arts.

The work has traditionally been and still is done entirely
by women. The embroidery was done on sarees, cholis and
children’s clothes and was essentially a home craft. It is
interesting to note that many of the original Kasuti designs were
reproduced on woven materials especially for making cholis
and were known as Ilkal Khanns, Ilkali being a place near

INDIAN EMBROIDERY

Bijapur and the Khanns the brocaded fabrics woven in the area.

As in other regions so here also women turned for design
to their own surroundings and chose the ones that appealed to
their religious, artistic or domestic instincts. The religious motifs
are the gopurams of temples, the chariot and palanquin in which
the deity is carried on ceremonial occasions, the lotus, the tulsi
katti which is the enclosure for the sacred tulsi plant. Elephants
with howdahs, peacocks with spread plumage, birds of different
kinds, animals and flowers are standard motifs. The cradle,
anklet-bells, palanquins and other articles of every day use are
artistically depicted.

The material on which the embroidery is executed is a
hand woven cloth of dark colour, usually black. The sarees,
known as Ilkal sarees, have a wide silk pallu and border, the
main fabric being thick soft cotton. The largest and most closely
spaced motifs are placed near the pallu. As the embroiderer
moves towards the main part of the saree the motifs become
smaller and more scattered until they fade away gracefully with
clusters of stars or mere dots.

The most frequently used colours are red, purple, green,
orange and crimson. Patterns in only one or two colours are
extremely rare and the usual colour combinations are orange,
green and crimson or puqDle, green, orange and red, the brighter
shades of these being preferred.

The embroidery is done in silk which, earlier, was unpicked
from the tassels pendant from the pallu. Later it came to be
obtained commercially. The basic stitches used are the back
stitch, running stitch, cross stitch and zig-zag running stitch. In
certain work the overall effect is of a woven design rather than
of embroidery. Kasuti stitches are horizontal, vertical or
diagonal. These are used going in one direction, the design
being completed on the return journey by filling in the blank
portions in the running stitch.

The kasuti worker uses no help such as drawing out threads
or tracing the motifs to help set the pattern. The pattern is in
the mind and is built up with just the needle moving in different

INDIAN EMBROIDERY

directions, In Coorg the basic stitches used are cross and double
running stitches. The basic design is done in cross stitch but
the static quality of cross stitch is relieved by working the
projections in running stitch. Here also the motifs combine
religion, nature and articles of daily use.

9. TRIBAL AREAS

The thick shawls and skirts woven by tribal people in deep
colours with a variety of designs are relatively well known. What
is not so well known, however, is the fact that a great many of
these articles are embellished with the needle to give an added
dimension to the woven design.

Most of the designs can be traced back to old legends. The
snake so commonly founded in thickly wooded areas is an object
of admiration, fear and reverence. The beauty of its markings,
the deadly poison it secretes and the powers it is said to be
imbued with have given it a special place in human legend
throughout history in most countries of the world. In Manipur,
for instance, an elaborate design called ‘akoybi’ dates back to
early tales about the legenday snake, Pakhamba who, it is said,
was killed. Later, the killer tried to atone for his crime by creating
a pattern to represent the scales of a snake. The design is
composed of circles joining each other, each circle having its
own distinctive pattern. Another design is said to have been
copied from the contours of a log of wood. The running lines
and circular configurations are delineated in black and white
for proper emphasis. In a sarong, woven either in a solid shade
or with stripes, the border is so skillfully embroidered that it
seems to be a part of the weave rather than a later addition.
A zig-zag pattern done with silk floss in satin stitch is said to
have for inspiration a caterpillar sitting on a castor leaf and
nibbling its edges.

In the Arunachal Pradesh tribe of Sherdukpen there is a
legend about a girl who fell in love with a snake which, once
in a while to please her, took on human shape. For the rest of
the time she was happy to just have him coiled on her lap.

INDIAN EMBROIDERY

Naturally, as she wove, the material took on the appearance of
the serpent’s scales. The women of the tribe embroider the cloth
they wear as a knapsack around their shoulders. The swastika
is a great favourite and is usually flanked by geometrical motifs.
The designs come from objects of every day life — a jug, a pair
of tongs, the eyes of animals, flowers, birds and shrubs. Another
tribe, the Hrussos, make similar designs but interpret them
differently. The sun surrounded by its corona made by horizontal
lines from the centre of the design is a favourite subject. It is
believed that bright sunshine is the result of a God making
clouds, feed the sun with the corona. A zig zag pattern is said
to be a flight of cranes while a triangle represents a mountain.
In another place a triangle is said to represent teeth which show
when a person smiles. Black and white squares are explained
as fingerprints, a cluster of clouds or the markings of a snake.
Since various objects have, over the centuries, been
incorporated in the weaving and embroidery designs there is
nothing surprising about the fact that modern technological
products like the aeroplane should make an appearance there.

Cowries and beads are incorporated into embroidery for
decorative effect Various tribes use them on sashes, bags, belts,
aprons and gauntlets. Still others weave them into the fabric
itself The nomadic Banjaras use a profusion of mirrors, tassels,
spangles, beads etc. to give a sparkle to women’s clothes.

The shawl that was traditionally bestowed on the Angami
Naga hunter for success in warfare and hunting is embroidered
with various animals and geometrical designs. The sami lami
phee, as it is called, is black with horizontal bands of colour
within which the motifs are embroidered.

The Todas are supposed to be remnants of the Greeks
who came to India with Alexander the Great and penetrated
as far South as the Nilgiris where they settled down. Their
women sport a fantastic hairdo. The hair on top of the head
is combed smoothly and is then shaped into corkscrew curls
which hang down to the shoulders. So smooth and precise are
these curls that it seems impossible to believe that they are not
the result of the labours of an experienced hairdresser.

INDIAN EMBROIDERY

The men wear long shawls draped like the ancient Greeks.
These are specially woven. They are plain with red and black
bands at the ends placed at a distance of about six inches. The
embroidery is done between the stripes, counting the weft, with
stitches clustering together to produce the effect of a weave.
The designs are geometrical in pattern. Since the Todas worship
the buffalo, the buffalo horn design is most important. Others
are derived from the flowers of the area and from articles like
boxes. One design has been named after an ancient priest and
another after a girl who fell from a precipice and lost her life.

The colours red, black, green, yellow, orange and white
are used in various permutations and combinations. A clever
effect of light and shade is produced by using alternating bands
of colour tapering from dark to lighter to light on the top half
and then tapering again from light to lighter to dark along the
bottom half along a whole row of identical motifs.

In Manipur men’s turbans have white on white applique
which gives them a look of cool elegance. The rich heavy
costumes of court dancers are elaborately embroidered with
gold and silver and are studded with small mirrors.

Tribal embroidery is mostly done in straight stitches of
different lengths made in various thicknesses of yam. The effect
is achieved not by the number of stitches used but by the
manipulation of a single stitch in various ways. A zig zag pattern
in which, light and dark colours and white are used in
succeeding ascending and descending patterns creates an
illusion of the actual rising and falling of the design. If one looks
at it fixedly for a time waves seem to rise and recede in a most
realistic fashion.

10. RAJASTHAN

Rajasthan, as its name signifies, was a conglomeration of
princely states. They were of all shapes and sizes, wielding
varying degrees of power and enjoying wealth and prestige
according to their size and martial prowess. Whatever their
wealth or size, however, one characteristic was shared by all.

INDIAN EMBROIDERY

The rulers were invariably patrons of the arts. Painters,
woodcarvers, jewellers, gold and silversmiths and embroiderers
received grants of money and land and were encouraged to
turn out articles of the highest skill and ingenuity. These were
used by the kings and nobles in their homes and to emphasize
the grandeur and magnificence of their courts and thus, enhance
their prestige. Elaborate gifts were given on all occasions and
daughters carried sumptuous dowries all of which not only
underscored the father’s wealth but also marked him as a man
of taste and learning.

Clothes, girdles, bags, tents, wall hangings, horse saddles,
elephants’ trappings and a host of other articles were
embroidered with gold, silver and silk thread. The effect was
further enhanced by incorporating precious stones and pearls
into the design. The work was done on cotton, silk or velvet
with a variety of fine stitches. The designs were floral,
geometrical or mythological and, showed court scenes or
devotees praying at a shrine in much the same way as these
were depicted in painting. One bag embroidered in the 18th
century shows a man squatting on the floor feeding birds. Others
showed men and women engaged in various domestic and
commercial pursuits.

The pichhwai, so beautiful a feature of Gujarat embroidery,
was also made in Rajasthan where the largest number of
devotees of Shrinathji, a special manifestation of Lord Krishna,
live. Applique work used here to show the God surrounded by
worshippers and cows. The border was made up of image of
the God in various costumes and decked with different jewels.

Apart from this sophisticated work which was similar in
almost all courts each region developed its own speciality. The
common people beautified their clothes and articles of every
day use with embroidery that used simple stitches and motifs
derived from nature and objects familiar to them in their day
to day living. The tradition has continued. In Bikaner women
embroider their garments by counting threads and building up
the pattern by following the warp and weft thus producing
geometrical patterns. By using a double running stitch the

INDIAN EMBROIDERY

pattern appears the same on both sides making the garment
reversible. The work resembles the great Rajasthan favourite,
the bandhani or the tie and dye method of decorating fabric
with colour.

Chain stitch, done in contrasting colours, is used in Alwar
to produce an effect of richness and beauty. Geometrical forms
are used with flowing circular lines to produce a sense of
movement in the design. Stark contrast is created by producing
black and white motifs on a golden yellow background.

In Sikar and Jhunjhunu, skirt borders are embroidered
with a variety of birds, animals, trees, and flowers. There is a
pleasing quality of naivete in the work. The stitches used are
simple — herringbone for filling and stem stitch for outlining
but a three-dimensional effect is created by using a thick thread
in a variety of colours.

The ralli is a patchwork spread made in Jaiselmer. Small
pieces of material are stitched together in a decorative pattern
to form the top of the spread. As in other parts of the country,
the padding is made up of layers of old material held together
with running stitches. Jaiselmer and Jodhpur also excel in silk
thread embroidery on leather which is done especially on shoes
and waistcoats. The knuckle pad is another article made of
leather which is decorated with scenes resembling miniature
paintings. The work done in the cities is fine and in subdued
colour and is sometimes highlighted with gold or silver thread.
In rural areas the designs are bolder and made with bright
colours and thicker thread. Horse and camel saddles are
embroidered with an awl and are richly colourful.

The obvious inspiration for the folk embroidery of
Rajasthan are toys. A whole expanse of material is covered
with people, projecting arms at awkward angles. Elephants have
large staring eyes, short legs and long trunk falling from a small
head. Trees are shaped like candelabra with stems sticking out
on either side and tapering to a point at the top. A horse stands
on stick-thin legs; two sausage like dogs with curling tails growl
at each other while pencil slim human beings carry on various
activities. The whole scene could have been lifted from a Paul

INDIAN EMBROIDERY

Klee Canvas or, perhaps, embroideries like these could have
been the inspiration for Klee’s work.

11. ORISSA AND TAMIL NADU

Whereas other states use applique for secular purposes in
Orissa and Tamil Nadu, it is used primarily in articles relating
to religious observances. In both states the work has evolved
around temples — in Orissa around the famous temple of
Jagannath at Puri and in Tamil Nadu in Thanjavur, the city
noted for its temples and religious rituals. Articles required for
use in temples or religious processions such as umbrellas,
canopies, hangings for walls and tubular structures (rather like
long lamp shades), made to hang on either side of the deity like
colourful pillars, are all made in bold designs in brilliant colours.

In Orissa small pieces of cloth are cut into different patterns
and sewn on to a plain background. Birds, fishes, peacocks,
elephants, etc. are all made in this way and attached with fine
stitches to the base material. Wings, eyes and other details are
outlined in chain stitch. Spikes or projections are made by
pulling one chain stitch upwards and fixing it in place with a
long stitch. Bands of material in different colours divide the
space. In an umbrella, the central motifs both above and below
will be lotus flowers. The petals are in turn enclosed within a
circle of material from which more petals unfold. Space is left
between each band and the design encircled by it to allow the
background material to show and to avoid a cluttered look.
The bands may be plain or have small triangles cut at one end
to produce a spiked edge. Sometimes each triangle is cut out
separately and is individually attached to one edge of the band.

Flowers are cut out from a piece of material but are also
made by taking a long piece of material, shaping it like a flower
and then attaching it with fine stitches. Sometimes a coloured
material is superimposed over the white one. The coloured flower
is smaller than the white one and is arranged in such a way
that white shows through a tiny hole in the centre and all around
the circumference creating an impression of a double coloured

INDIAN EMBROIDERY

flower. This gives the pattern depth and creates a three
dimensional effect. Bright colours are used alternately with white
thus avoiding gaudiness and allowing necessary spaces for the
eye to rest upon.

In Tamil Nadu pieces of felt in muted colours are used in
combination with strong dark colours to create a powerful effect
which is strong and bold but never gaudy. In many pieces the
designs are attached to the base material with a fine band of
fabric in a contrasting colour. Others are attached with such
closely worked buttonhole stitch that it gives an appearance of
woven fabric.

The motifs are religious being images of various deities
such as Ganesh, Durga, Kartikeya, Shiv and Parvati and of
mythological birds and animals. Sometimes the whole motif is
cut out of a single piece of cloth but at others different colours
are used for body, clothes, wings, etc. These are skilfully joined
with fine stitching.

These essentially religious articles have now been modified
to produce garden umbrella lamp shades and other articles of
domestic use.

GOLD AND SILVER
EMBROIDERY (ZARI WORK)

Gold and silver embroidery is of ancient origin and has
been known in India certainly from the 15th century. Where
and how it originated is not quite certain but as has been seen
earlier, it has been extensively practised in different parts of the
world. In the early Middle Ages in Europe, the work was akin
to that of the goldsmith and the embroidered surface was often
hammered flat. From the 12th century onwards silk thread was
used along with the gilt to pick out details such as the flesh of
the figures. In earlier references to gold cloth, it is not quite
clear whether the indication is towards weaving or embroidery.

In 1498, the Zamorin of Calicut received Vasco da Gama
dressed in fine cotton clothes and a silk turban all sumptuously
embroidered with gold. The Mughals used gold for filling the
background with laid threads while the main motifs were
executed in coloured silks. During the decline of the empire the
workmen moved to various states which offered patronage.
Their skills were adapted to meet the demands of their new
patrons and designs were modified to meet the rising costs of
both labour and materials.

The love of beauty combined with a desire for display of
wealth produced an enormous range of goods that stretched
from the sumptuous heaviness of throne seats and elephant
trappings to gossamer light fabrics scintillating with thousands
of tiny gold dots. In between came scabbards for swords and
daggers, canopies, coats, caps, ghagras, covers for boxes, combs
and mirrors, umbrellas, fans, shoes, bags, belts, saddle cloths
and a variety of other objects.

INDIAN EMBROIDERY

The technique of gold embroidery on velvet is said to have
been introduced into India by the Portuguese. Embroidery done
on velvet or satin or other heavy materials came to be known
as Zardozl The work is done by laying the gold threads over
a foundation padding of cotton threads. The work is, of
necessity, formal in design. Geometric, floral and animal
patterns were great favourites and could appear companionably
together on the same piece.

The pieces so produced are obviously heavy being weighed
down by the combined weight of the base fabric, the metal wire
used for embroidery and the padding. The work was suited for
heavy items such as saddle cloths, umbrellas, canopies, seat
covers, carpets, bolsters, etc.

The work on lighter fabrics is known as kalabattu or karchob.
There is no foundation padding for the embroidery, the gilt wire
or spangles being stitched directly to the fabric or the wire itself
used as embroidery thread making tiny dots, flowers or stars to
cover light silk, cotton or chiffon. This is used for clothing and
small articles of every day.

The design is made on paper, the edges being perforated
by small pins or needles to form a stencil. White or coloured
chalk is put on a cloth dauber which is lightly rubbed over the
perforations transferring the design to the material. White chalk
is used for a coloured background and vice versa.

The embroidery threads are made by melting the metal
ingot and making them into bars known as pasa. For gold thread
a piece of silver about the length and thickness of a man’s finger
is gilded at least three times with the purest gold, all the alloy
being previously most carefully removed from the silver. This is
beaten into a strong wire and is then drawn through successive
holes in a steel plate until it becomes, literally, as fine as a hair.
The gilding is not disturbed by this process and the wire appears
to be made of pure gold. The wires are then drawn through
holes in a steel plate attached to a highly polished anvil. As the
wires are pulled through the holes, the workman called
kalabattunakad strikes them rapidly with a highly polished steel

INDIAN EMBROIDERY

hammer. So skillfully is the wire manipulated that no portion
of it remains unflattened. The wire may then be wound around
silk thread or it may be used flat

Salma is very fine, soft unflattened wire wound spirally
without a thread in the centre. It is very flexible and is used in
Kalabattu for making flowers and leaves which are attached by
tiny stitches to the base material. For use in zardozi work,
however, the wire is much thicker and the spirals much stiffen
It can be used with close spirals or stretched to make shallower
indentations according to the requirement of the design. The
flat wire may be twisted at different points to make for variety.
A very pretty effect is achieved by using coloured threads for
fillings of flowers and leaves while outlining them with gold and
silver thread. The effect is that of enamelling from which the
work derives its name mina.

Small spangles called s itara (star), are used for the centre
of flowers. Filed together they can make up a whole design.
Their name is derived from their capacity for reflecting light
and they create the play of light and shade that mirrors or pieces
of mica do in other embroideries. Tiny bowls (katoris), with a
perforation through the centre are also used like sitaras.

Flat wire is used for the work known as kamdani. The
needle is threaded with ordinary thread which is doubled, the
two ends being secured together with a knot. One end of the
wire is pressed at the knotted end. It is pulled through the material
with the wire being pressed down at every stitch. Small dots or
sprays of flowers and leaves are produced with overlapping
stitches. The effect while being rich is also very light and dainty.
A shimmering effect is created by the hazara buti in which a
thousand dots are produced from roughly 1/80 kg. of wire.

Borders of various kinds are made as edging for sarees,
dupattas, etc. or as an adjunct to other embroidery. The katao-
ki-bel being meant as edging for sarees is 9 yards long. Made
of stiff canvas the whole surface of the design is covered with
wire and spangles — either plain gold, silver or coloured or a
combination of all three. The redundant canvas is cut away

INDIAN EMBROIDERY

leaving a scalloped or plain edge and holes in the design
producing a lacy effect. Being so stiff it is useful only as edging.
Other borders are made of cloth on which a design in sequins
and wires of various kinds is embroidered. This is then used
along with braids, twisted wires, woven gold border, salma,
sitara, katori, seed pearls and beatles’ wings to make elaborate
designs on silk or heavy cotton. Lace made on net is
embroidered with gold thread salma and sitara and makes a
nice edging for sleeves and bottoms of kurtas or the short ends
of dupattas as well as for sarees.

A variation is to make the base material with strips or tiny
squares of different coloured fabrics and to do the embroidery
in wire. Designs cut out from plain gold and silver woven borders
are craftily used to enhance the effect Thus at every join of the
stripe a thin border will be attached with large leaves and flowers
projecting on both sides. Narrow gold woven borders are
converted into chutki by being sharply pressed between the two
thumbs nails after every centimeter or so along its length. The
pressed portion makes a sharp ridge and the whole presents a
spiked appearance. This is normally used as an adjunct to
another border but is used alone on the field of the work.

A wide range of liturgical vestments are produced in Kerala.
Robes, stoles, surplices, cloaks, etc. are heavily embroidered
and used during services in churches. Christianity came to
Kerala very early and took firm roots there. Inevitably, therefore,
embroideries connected with the religion flourished there.

The design is outlined with gold cord secured on the base
material with tiny stitches. At the beginning and end of each
round the cord is threaded into a needle of appropriate size
and passed through to the wrong side. The inside of the design
is filled in with spangles. Silk thread is also used over a padding
of various degrees of thickness to produce a three-dimensional
effect.

The colours in the vestments are fixed. White is the symbol
of purity and light; green is hope and is used on certain Sundays
such as after Epithany; rose is for joy and is used at Pentecost

INDIAN EMBROIDERY

and on martyrs’ days.

Gold and silver embroidery uses most of the stitches in
other forms of the craft. Satin, chain, stem, running stitches are
all used but the most important stitch, of course, is the couching
or laid stitch.

Delhi, Bhopal, Lucknow, Agra, Banaras, Hyderabad,
Surat, Bombay, Aurangabad, Jaipur, Murshidabad are all
important centres of gold and silver embroidery. The work is
done mostly by men (in the case of liturgical garments it is done
entirely by them) although women do kamdani work for which
Lucknow is the most famous centre.

Bibliography

Abul Fazl, “Ain-i-Akbari” translated into English by H. Block-
mann, 1891.

Bhattacharyya, A.K, “Chamba Rumal” 1968

Brijbhushan, Jamila, “Indian Costumes and Textiles” 1958

Bernier, Francois, “Travels in the Moghul Empire A.D. 1656-
1668” translated on the basis of Irvin Brock’s version and
annotated by Archibald Constable (1891). 2d ed. revised by
Vincent A. Smith, 1916.

Chattopadhyay, Kamaladevi, “Handicrafts of India” 1975

Chand, Dr. Moti, “Prachin Bharatiya Vesh-Bhusha,” Sam vat
2007

Dongerkery, Kamla S., “The Romance of Indian Embroidery
1951

Elwin, Verrier, “The Tribal Art of Middle India,” 1951

Gill, Haijeet Singh, “A Phulkari from Bhatinda, 1977”

Ghurye, G.S., “Indian Costume” 1951

Hitkari, S.S., “Phulkari, the folk art of Punjab, 1980” Hodson,
T.C., “The Naga Tribes of Manipur” 1911

INDIAN EMBROIDERY

Irwin, John & Margaret Hall, “Indian Embroideries” 1973

Leonownes, Anna Harrietta, “Life and travel in India, being
Recollections of a Journey before the days of Railroads, 1884

Manucci, Niccolas, “Storia-do-Mogor or Mogul India, 1653-
1708” translated with introduction and notes by William Irvine,
1907

Mittal, Jagdish, “Bharatiya Kasida” (in Hindi) 1954

Pal, Rampa, “The Phulkari, a lost craft,” 1955

Schuette, Merie and Sigrid Muller-Christensen, “The Art of
Embroidery” 1964

Tavernier, Jean Baptiste, Baron of Auborne, “Travels in India”
translated by V. Ball, 1899

Watson, J. Forbes, “Textile manufactures and the costumes of
the people of India” 1866

Watt, Sir George, “Indian Art at Delhi” 1903

• •

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pattern over the centuries.

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PUBLICATIONS DIVISION

MINISTRY OF INFORMATION & BROADCASTING

GOVERNMENT OF INDIA

PD ISBN: 81 -230 -1369 -8
BN A&C-ENG-REP-040-2006-07
Price : Rs. 75.00

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